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Elbert Dijkgraaf
Graduate School, Tinbergen Institute, 3062 PA Rotterdam, The Netherlands

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Journal article
Published: 25 August 2021 in Sustainability
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The Netherlands is a frontrunner in the EU regarding the circular economy. On a national scale, there are higher targets than the EU for different packaging materials as plastics, glass, paper/cartons, and aluminium. For glass, the government advocates a recycling rate of more than 90%. In 2017, the rate realised was 86%. To reach this 4% higher goal, the Human Environment and Transport Inspectorate wants to improve the collection infrastructure by increasing the number of bottle banks, with 800 by 2021. However, in the literature, an effectiveness analysis is lacking. Based on empirical evidence with data from 2007–2019, we show that increasing the number of bottle banks is not effective. Implementing a unit-based pricing system as a priced bag or container for unsorted waste can be more effective in achieving this goal, although this can have serious drawbacks.

ACS Style

Elbert Dijkgraaf; Raymond Gradus. Are Bottle Banks Sufficiently Effective for Increasing Glass Recycling Rates? Sustainability 2021, 13, 9540 .

AMA Style

Elbert Dijkgraaf, Raymond Gradus. Are Bottle Banks Sufficiently Effective for Increasing Glass Recycling Rates? Sustainability. 2021; 13 (17):9540.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Elbert Dijkgraaf; Raymond Gradus. 2021. "Are Bottle Banks Sufficiently Effective for Increasing Glass Recycling Rates?" Sustainability 13, no. 17: 9540.

Article
Published: 16 July 2020 in Environmental and Resource Economics
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The European Union advocates a plastic waste recycling rate of more than 55%. Even for the Netherlands, which has already invested heavily in recycling plastic waste of households, it will still be a challenge to meet this target. The preferred solution to fulfil this target in the Netherlands is implementing separate collection schemes at the curbside, although some municipalities invested in post-separation. We show, based on data for 2013–2014, that post-collection separation is an advisable alternative, with an increased separation of plastic waste compared with home separation. This is even slightly the case if home separation is combined with a unit-based pricing system for unsorted waste and with a frequent door-to-door collection of plastic waste. Moreover, there are indications that the cost effectiveness of recycling plastic waste increases if post separation is chosen. In addition, some claim that unit-based pricing of unsorted waste is important to create an awareness effect to buy less packaging material. However, based on the combination of post separation and unit-based pricing, we have no indication for such awareness effect as the price effect on the amount of plastic waste is insignificantly small.

ACS Style

Elbert Dijkgraaf; Raymond Gradus. Post-collection Separation of Plastic Waste: Better for the Environment and Lower Collection Costs? Environmental and Resource Economics 2020, 77, 1 -16.

AMA Style

Elbert Dijkgraaf, Raymond Gradus. Post-collection Separation of Plastic Waste: Better for the Environment and Lower Collection Costs? Environmental and Resource Economics. 2020; 77 (1):1-16.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Elbert Dijkgraaf; Raymond Gradus. 2020. "Post-collection Separation of Plastic Waste: Better for the Environment and Lower Collection Costs?" Environmental and Resource Economics 77, no. 1: 1-16.

Journal article
Published: 01 April 2019 in Waste Management
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This study investigates the drivers of unit-based pricing systems for waste in the Netherlands using an administrative database from 1999 until 2017. As these unit based pricing systems are effective in reducing waste, more and more Dutch municipalities adopt these programs. Based on their incentive, systems are ranged from green ('weight' or 'bag') to less green ('frequency' or 'volume'), or not green ('flat rate'). In one-third of the municipalities shifts took place from one unit-based pricing system to the other, with 84 percent becoming greener and 16 percent less green. There is some evidence for political motivation of these shifts. Particularly, Social Liberals councilors are in favor of waste pricing, whereas Social Democrats councilors are not in favor. In addition, municipalities in low income and less political fragmented councils are more in favor of waste pricing.

ACS Style

Raymond Gradus; Elbert Dijkgraaf. Poorer and less political fragmented Dutch municipalities take tighter waste reduction decisions. Waste Management 2019, 88, 328 -336.

AMA Style

Raymond Gradus, Elbert Dijkgraaf. Poorer and less political fragmented Dutch municipalities take tighter waste reduction decisions. Waste Management. 2019; 88 ():328-336.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Raymond Gradus; Elbert Dijkgraaf. 2019. "Poorer and less political fragmented Dutch municipalities take tighter waste reduction decisions." Waste Management 88, no. : 328-336.

Article
Published: 02 June 2016 in Environmental and Resource Economics
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The European Union (EU) advocates a household waste recycling rate of more than 65 %. Although the Netherlands has already invested heavily in recycling policies, this is still a big challenge as nowadays this rate is approximately 50 % on average and very few no municipalities have a rate above 65 %. Given this practice, it is possible to learn from the Dutch experience which policies are effective in increasing recycling rates. Based on a large panel data set for the Netherlands, we show that unit-based pricing, avoiding a duo-bin for unsorted and compostable waste, and reducing the frequency of collecting unsorted and compostable waste at the curbside are effective in raising the recycling rate. However, only a bag-based pricing system has a substantial effect, but this policy can have some adverse effects. Other unit-based pricing systems have effects of less than 10 % points. In nearly all cases, changing the frequency of collection of recyclables has no or very small effects. Moreover, the complementarity between unit-based pricing and curbside service is low. Overall, it seems very difficult to reach the EU goal of 65 % with the policies applied.

ACS Style

Elbert Dijkgraaf; R.H.J.M. Gradus. An EU Recycling Target: What Does the Dutch Evidence Tell Us? Environmental and Resource Economics 2016, 68, 501 -526.

AMA Style

Elbert Dijkgraaf, R.H.J.M. Gradus. An EU Recycling Target: What Does the Dutch Evidence Tell Us? Environmental and Resource Economics. 2016; 68 (3):501-526.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Elbert Dijkgraaf; R.H.J.M. Gradus. 2016. "An EU Recycling Target: What Does the Dutch Evidence Tell Us?" Environmental and Resource Economics 68, no. 3: 501-526.

Original articles
Published: 08 April 2016 in Local Government Studies
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Different concentration indexes are calculated for the Dutch waste collection market and all show that this market was highly concentrated in 2002, 2006, 2010 and 2014. The estimation results in 2002 show that private collection is cheaper but high concentration increases costs of private collection and therefore (partly) offsets the advantage of contracting out. In 2006, the savings gained from privatisation and also the effect of concentration disappear, probably due to the introduction of a VAT-compensation fund. In 2010, for an area with a radius of 30 km, high concentration increases costs, but for larger areas, this effect mostly disappears. For 2014, in most estimations, this concentration effect disappears. If we include fixed effects for a panel, the cost advantage of inter-municipal cooperation is larger than that of private production and concentration effects also disappear. Overall, these estimation results are rather independent of the concentration indexes used, if we investigate several indexes as an alternative for the Herfindahl–Hirschman index.

ACS Style

Raymond Gradus; Martijn Schoute; Elbert Dijkgraaf. The effects of market concentration on costs of local public services: empirical evidence from Dutch waste collection. Local Government Studies 2016, 44, 86 -104.

AMA Style

Raymond Gradus, Martijn Schoute, Elbert Dijkgraaf. The effects of market concentration on costs of local public services: empirical evidence from Dutch waste collection. Local Government Studies. 2016; 44 (1):86-104.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Raymond Gradus; Martijn Schoute; Elbert Dijkgraaf. 2016. "The effects of market concentration on costs of local public services: empirical evidence from Dutch waste collection." Local Government Studies 44, no. 1: 86-104.

Article
Published: 11 July 2014 in Environmental and Resource Economics
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Municipal residential waste costs are rising. Therefore, it is important to introduce measures that lower waste collection and disposal costs. Based on a large panel data set for the Netherlands we show that unit-based pricing systems are more important from a cost-minimizing point of view than the institutional mode of waste collection. In particular, the bag-based and frequency-based pricing systems are preferred. Moreover, dividing the cost effects between cost price and quantity effects, we illustrate that lower administrative costs and a smaller waste quantity are the most important drivers of cost decreases. It also shows that a disadvantage of the bag-based system is that it is not easy to price compostable waste. In addition, if more general cost functions are analyzed, these estimations suggest that there are economies of scale for small municipalities.

ACS Style

Elbert Dijkgraaf; Raymond Gradus. Efficiency Effects of Unit-Based Pricing Systems and Institutional Choices of Waste Collection. Environmental and Resource Economics 2014, 61, 641 -658.

AMA Style

Elbert Dijkgraaf, Raymond Gradus. Efficiency Effects of Unit-Based Pricing Systems and Institutional Choices of Waste Collection. Environmental and Resource Economics. 2014; 61 (4):641-658.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Elbert Dijkgraaf; Raymond Gradus. 2014. "Efficiency Effects of Unit-Based Pricing Systems and Institutional Choices of Waste Collection." Environmental and Resource Economics 61, no. 4: 641-658.

Journal article
Published: 03 July 2014 in International Public Management Journal
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Based on panel data for almost all Dutch municipalities, we analyze changes in the mode of service production for refuse collection between 1998 and 2010. We distinguish execution by private enterprises, municipal enterprises, municipal cooperation, outsourcing to neighboring municipalities, and in-house collection. The number of municipalities using mixed forms, such as municipal enterprise, rose as the use of other forms declined, although municipal cooperation only decreased slightly. In approximately half of Dutch municipalities, the mode of production was stable between 1998 and 2010. In the other municipalities, shifts took place, with two-thirds being towards outside production and one-third towards inside production. Based on a logit model, we find some evidence of an ideological motivation for changing the mode of production. For income, we show that richer municipalities are less likely to change. We also illustrate the robustness of this result to various assumptions.

ACS Style

Raymond Gradus; Elbert Dijkgraaf; Mattheus Wassenaar. Understanding Mixed Forms of Refuse Collection, Privatization, and Its Reverse in the Netherlands. International Public Management Journal 2014, 17, 328 -343.

AMA Style

Raymond Gradus, Elbert Dijkgraaf, Mattheus Wassenaar. Understanding Mixed Forms of Refuse Collection, Privatization, and Its Reverse in the Netherlands. International Public Management Journal. 2014; 17 (3):328-343.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Raymond Gradus; Elbert Dijkgraaf; Mattheus Wassenaar. 2014. "Understanding Mixed Forms of Refuse Collection, Privatization, and Its Reverse in the Netherlands." International Public Management Journal 17, no. 3: 328-343.

Original articles
Published: 01 May 2013 in Applied Economics Letters
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For refuse collection, we estimate the cost effects of different institutional modes using panel data for almost all Dutch municipalities between 1998 and 2010. The modes we consider are private enterprises, intermunicipal cooperation, municipality-owned enterprises and in-house collection. For private companies, the cost advantage becomes substantially smaller and nonsignificant if municipal fixed effects are included. The cost advantage of intermunicipal cooperation is larger in this case than that of privatization.

ACS Style

E. Dijkgraaf; R. H. J. M. Gradus. Cost advantage cooperations larger than private waste collectors. Applied Economics Letters 2013, 20, 702 -705.

AMA Style

E. Dijkgraaf, R. H. J. M. Gradus. Cost advantage cooperations larger than private waste collectors. Applied Economics Letters. 2013; 20 (7):702-705.

Chicago/Turabian Style

E. Dijkgraaf; R. H. J. M. Gradus. 2013. "Cost advantage cooperations larger than private waste collectors." Applied Economics Letters 20, no. 7: 702-705.

Journal article
Published: 08 July 2012 in Empirica
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Little evidence is available for the effect of competition on educational quality as only a few countries allow large-scale competition. In the Netherlands, free parental choice has been present since the beginning of the twentieth century and can be characterized as a full voucher program with 100 % funding. Based on micro panel data for the Netherlands, we show that there is a relation between competition and educational outcomes in secondary education, but that it is often negative and small, sometimes insignificant but never positive. This effect is larger for small and medium-sized schools and for schools that do not have a Protestant or Catholic denomination.

ACS Style

Elbert Dijkgraaf; Raymond H. J. M. Gradus; J. Matthijs de Jong. Competition and educational quality: evidence from the Netherlands. Empirica 2012, 40, 607 -634.

AMA Style

Elbert Dijkgraaf, Raymond H. J. M. Gradus, J. Matthijs de Jong. Competition and educational quality: evidence from the Netherlands. Empirica. 2012; 40 (4):607-634.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Elbert Dijkgraaf; Raymond H. J. M. Gradus; J. Matthijs de Jong. 2012. "Competition and educational quality: evidence from the Netherlands." Empirica 40, no. 4: 607-634.