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William Sims Bainbridge
National Science Foundation, Human-Centered Computing

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Book chapter
Published: 12 June 2018 in Encyclopedia of Social Network Analysis and Mining
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ACS Style

William Sims Bainbridge. Gaming and Virtual Worlds. Encyclopedia of Social Network Analysis and Mining 2018, 907 -917.

AMA Style

William Sims Bainbridge. Gaming and Virtual Worlds. Encyclopedia of Social Network Analysis and Mining. 2018; ():907-917.

Chicago/Turabian Style

William Sims Bainbridge. 2018. "Gaming and Virtual Worlds." Encyclopedia of Social Network Analysis and Mining , no. : 907-917.

Book chapter
Published: 14 April 2016 in Handbook of Science and Technology Convergence
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In order to understand discovery and innovation, social scientists and historians have developed several systems for mapping kinds of thought and action, especially to learn where the convergence of multiple factors may achieve unusual progress. Even a simple descriptive scheme provides perspectives from which to see insights, such as how vision-inspired research can literally think outside the box. Thus it is worth considering how the individual scientist or engineer thinks, using a mind that is not merely the result of technical education, but that also reflects human personality dispositions. Yet progress requires individuals to cooperate, in teams and communication networks, through a dynamic division of labor assigning different roles to participants, according to changing conditions and opportunities. The convergence-divergence cycle plays out in ever more complex ways, as humanity becomes integrated into a single information society, so new kinds of research on the very dimensions of research will be required.

ACS Style

William Sims Bainbridge. Dimensions of Research. Handbook of Science and Technology Convergence 2016, 125 -137.

AMA Style

William Sims Bainbridge. Dimensions of Research. Handbook of Science and Technology Convergence. 2016; ():125-137.

Chicago/Turabian Style

William Sims Bainbridge. 2016. "Dimensions of Research." Handbook of Science and Technology Convergence , no. : 125-137.

Book chapter
Published: 14 April 2016 in Handbook of Science and Technology Convergence
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Throughout its history, science has benefited from contributions made by amateurs, but since the creation of Internet an increasing number of important projects have recruited large numbers of ordinary people to their teams, in what is now called citizen science. Prominent examples include Galaxy Zoo in which volunteers annotate photographs of distant galaxies and eBird in which bird watchers systematically document their observations out in the field. This phenomenon has become sufficiently extensive that several experts have offered typologies for classifying projects, establishing citizen science as a new research field in its own right. Among the implications for general science and technology convergence is the fact that the nature of expertise may shift, offloading much of the detailed technical knowledge onto information systems, and clarifying theoretical concepts, motivated by the need to integrate into the community many nonscientists, but in consequence also making it easier for a scientist in one field to participate in another. Consideration of citizen social science illuminates how citizen science more generally can facilitate convergence of science with society, guided by fundamental research on how science is understood by nonspecialists.

ACS Style

William Sims Bainbridge. Citizen Science. Handbook of Science and Technology Convergence 2016, 377 -390.

AMA Style

William Sims Bainbridge. Citizen Science. Handbook of Science and Technology Convergence. 2016; ():377-390.

Chicago/Turabian Style

William Sims Bainbridge. 2016. "Citizen Science." Handbook of Science and Technology Convergence , no. : 377-390.

Book chapter
Published: 14 April 2016 in Handbook of Science and Technology Convergence
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The legacy of the twentieth century is mixed to say the least, marked by two world wars that increased the human capacity for slaughter, the development of biotechnologies and information technologies that transformed many aspects of life, and the emergence of profound intellectual debates about the possibility of planning a better future. A brief survey of civilization theories, which had fallen out of fashion by the beginning of the present century, reveals that they raise questions that deserve fresh consideration. Beginning in the year 2000, a conference on the societal implication of nanotechnology and four conferences on converging technologies launched a concentrated effort to understand how the components of modern science, technology, and society already interact and could cooperate more beneficially. On that basis, the second decade of the twenty-first century launched a comprehensive exploration effort, communicated through a substantial book-length report titled Convergence of Knowledge, Technology and Society and this Handbook of Science and Technology Convergence. In the context of sophisticated ethical analysis and social science, we may have reached the point at which the governance institutions of society require redesign.

ACS Style

William Sims Bainbridge. Twenty-First Century Society. Handbook of Science and Technology Convergence 2016, 713 -727.

AMA Style

William Sims Bainbridge. Twenty-First Century Society. Handbook of Science and Technology Convergence. 2016; ():713-727.

Chicago/Turabian Style

William Sims Bainbridge. 2016. "Twenty-First Century Society." Handbook of Science and Technology Convergence , no. : 713-727.

Book chapter
Published: 14 April 2016 in Handbook of Science and Technology Convergence
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For a century, a key component of social scientific understanding of sustainability on Earth has been the theory that human population growth would gracefully adjust toward stability as the entire world became technologically modern. However, today this theory is in serious doubt, and it is equally plausible to argue that population will grow to natural limits set by starvation and warfare, or that it will shrink to a less violent human extinction. Many current policy debates are affected by these uncertainties, in such areas as national defense, immigration, education, and health care. Only the convergence of social and biological sciences, assisted by contributions from many other technical fields, will achieve a proper understanding of the complex systemic processes involved to identify the most humane and effective policies. Thus, convergence of science and technology will be required to achieve beneficial convergence of all human beings into a single healthy and prosperous society.

ACS Style

William Sims Bainbridge. Demographic Transition. Handbook of Science and Technology Convergence 2016, 559 -571.

AMA Style

William Sims Bainbridge. Demographic Transition. Handbook of Science and Technology Convergence. 2016; ():559-571.

Chicago/Turabian Style

William Sims Bainbridge. 2016. "Demographic Transition." Handbook of Science and Technology Convergence , no. : 559-571.

Book chapter
Published: 14 April 2016 in Handbook of Science and Technology Convergence
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Convergence of science with society will require convergence of the social sciences, because despite efforts over the years to unite them, the social sciences remain fragmented today as they were a century ago. The most notable past attempt was “social relations” centered at Harvard University, the combination of sociology, anthropology, and social aspects of psychology, but it failed rather decisively. Today, new research methods employing computer science and information technology offer the potential for a successful unification, building on prior quantitative methodologies such as public opinion research in political science and sociology. Culture may not be the only concept suitable for facilitating the convergence of the social sciences, but it is an especially powerful one in the light of Internet, and could provide the impetus for a more general partnership across the social sciences.

ACS Style

William Sims Bainbridge. Cultural Science. Handbook of Science and Technology Convergence 2016, 767 -779.

AMA Style

William Sims Bainbridge. Cultural Science. Handbook of Science and Technology Convergence. 2016; ():767-779.

Chicago/Turabian Style

William Sims Bainbridge. 2016. "Cultural Science." Handbook of Science and Technology Convergence , no. : 767-779.

Book chapter
Published: 14 April 2016 in Handbook of Science and Technology Convergence
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The defining feature of the human species has always been that we employ technology to interact with nature. The modern case of human-computer interaction provides five distinct research and development approaches that could be applied to any field of engineering: (1) ergonomics, (2) cognitive modeling, (3) user-centered design, (4) value-sensitive design, and (5) technical culture. The felicitous “symphony orchestra” metaphor for social-technical systems also identifies widely applicable principles: (1) division of labor, (2) a harmony of scientific concepts, (3) the need for significant human expertise, (4) social cohesion of teams, (5) human guidance, and (6) properly defined general principles for decision making. Humanity may have reached a technological watershed at which the basis of much of the economy shifts from physical objects to information, but in any case innovation, will require new collaborations between fields of expertise, in service of human well-being.

ACS Style

William Sims Bainbridge. Human-Technology Collaboration. Handbook of Science and Technology Convergence 2016, 363 -376.

AMA Style

William Sims Bainbridge. Human-Technology Collaboration. Handbook of Science and Technology Convergence. 2016; ():363-376.

Chicago/Turabian Style

William Sims Bainbridge. 2016. "Human-Technology Collaboration." Handbook of Science and Technology Convergence , no. : 363-376.

Book chapter
Published: 14 April 2016 in Handbook of Science and Technology Convergence
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Convergence of science and technology with society entails globalization, but will not necessarily lead to uniformity across nations or institutions of society. In the past, technologies differed from one place to another not only because societies differed in terms of their level of development but also because of contrasting natural conditions, historical accidents, and cultural values. Discoveries and inventions do tend to spread from their points of origin to other locations, and extensive research and theorizing have identified a large number and variety of factors that shape this diffusion. Innovation has tended to be localized, for example, in the familiar “Silicon Valley” phenomenon, in which a relatively small number of scientists and engineers communicated intensively with each other, as they collectively progressed. Thus, we cannot be assured that all parts of the globe will be equally creative in innovating, even as they all are affected by it. Over time, however, cycles of convergence and divergence can ensure dynamism on the global scale.

ACS Style

William Sims Bainbridge. Science and Technology Globalization. Handbook of Science and Technology Convergence 2016, 621 -633.

AMA Style

William Sims Bainbridge. Science and Technology Globalization. Handbook of Science and Technology Convergence. 2016; ():621-633.

Chicago/Turabian Style

William Sims Bainbridge. 2016. "Science and Technology Globalization." Handbook of Science and Technology Convergence , no. : 621-633.

Book chapter
Published: 14 April 2016 in Handbook of Science and Technology Convergence
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Modern information technology is transforming the collection, management, and sharing of scientific data in ways that greatly encourage convergence. Data-intensive science has evolved beyond the point at which all the information required for a research study can be centrally located, so interoperability across systems is required, with the additional benefit that data from different sources can be combined. Interoperability of heterogeneous data is a difficult challenge, requiring carefully specified metadata and well-conceptualized data management approaches like Digital Object Architecture. Scientific literature has become so complex and voluminous that it also must be managed in new ways, for example, using knowledge graphs to map connections as in Semantic Medline. In the commercial realm, systems like Google Knowledge Graph and the related Knowledge Vault have begun to appear. For more than a decade, it has been recognized that future science will depend heavily upon distributed resources, including data archives, distant experimental facilities, and domain-specific research tools to enable new scientific discoveries and education across disciplines and geography. Similar approaches will become valuable for the development of abstract theory, for example, the cooperative construction of rigorous modular theories, in fields as diverse as physics and sociology, as scientists around the world contribute concepts and connect them by means of computer-based online tools.

ACS Style

George O. Strawn; William Sims Bainbridge. Information Technology Supported Convergence. Handbook of Science and Technology Convergence 2016, 279 -291.

AMA Style

George O. Strawn, William Sims Bainbridge. Information Technology Supported Convergence. Handbook of Science and Technology Convergence. 2016; ():279-291.

Chicago/Turabian Style

George O. Strawn; William Sims Bainbridge. 2016. "Information Technology Supported Convergence." Handbook of Science and Technology Convergence , no. : 279-291.

Book chapter
Published: 14 April 2016 in Handbook of Science and Technology Convergence
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For more than a decade, hundreds of scientists and engineers debated in conferences and contributed to books exploring the need and value of convergence across their fields and with society. Convergence advances an integrative approach across human dimensions, is based on the material unity of nature, and is best facilitated by a holistic approach with shared methodologies, theories, and goals. Convergence seeks to transcend existing human conflicts to achieve vastly improved conditions for work, learning, aging, and physical and cognitive wellness and to achieve shared human goals. Seven theories offer different perspectives on this complex dynamic and suggest why this century may be the Era of Convergence: (1) Economic Growth, (2) Specialization Network, (3) Reverse Salient, (4) Fundamental Principles, (5) Progress Asymptote, (6) Exogenous Revolution, and (7) Social Problems. Science and technology should serve the needs of human beings, and innovation is a complex social enterprise. Thus, convergence must include transformative tools, ethics, the social sciences, political diversity, the arts, and humanities. For the sake of clarity and comparison, the chapters of this handbook are organized in six sections: (1) Concepts and Methods, (2) Foundational Technologies Platform, (3) Human-Scale Platform, (4) Earth-Scale Platform, (5) Societal-Scale Platform, and (6) Convergence in Education.

ACS Style

William Sims Bainbridge; Mihail C. Roco. The Era of Convergence. Handbook of Science and Technology Convergence 2016, 1 -14.

AMA Style

William Sims Bainbridge, Mihail C. Roco. The Era of Convergence. Handbook of Science and Technology Convergence. 2016; ():1-14.

Chicago/Turabian Style

William Sims Bainbridge; Mihail C. Roco. 2016. "The Era of Convergence." Handbook of Science and Technology Convergence , no. : 1-14.

Book chapter
Published: 14 April 2016 in Handbook of Science and Technology Convergence
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Patents, copyrights, trademarks, and other forms of intellectual property protection are crucial ways in which society rewards inventors and other creative individuals. Yet convergence across fields of science and technology increases the probability of negative impacts, such as “patent thickets” in which it becomes difficult to combine patents that belong to different holders, in order to create a new product or industry. While some philosophers believed intellectual property was a natural right, it generally is explained in terms of its utility for society in encouraging innovation. Yet monopolies may file blocking patents, with no intention of using them but merely to prevent other companies from competing, and at the opposite extreme, today’s information technologies make copying of many forms of communication so easy that they severely undermine copyright protections. Norms of intellectual property harmonize with well-established societal institutions, yet many fields of science and engineering are more like social movements and thus less compatible with rigid rules. To the extent that science and technology convergence is itself a social movement, it will encourage research and debate about what norms are most appropriate in different areas and during the chaotic periods when they converge.

ACS Style

William Sims Bainbridge. Intellectual Property Rights. Handbook of Science and Technology Convergence 2016, 833 -846.

AMA Style

William Sims Bainbridge. Intellectual Property Rights. Handbook of Science and Technology Convergence. 2016; ():833-846.

Chicago/Turabian Style

William Sims Bainbridge. 2016. "Intellectual Property Rights." Handbook of Science and Technology Convergence , no. : 833-846.

Book chapter
Published: 24 September 2015 in Handbook of Science and Technology Convergence
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For more than a decade, hundreds of scientists and engineers debated in conferences and contributed to books exploring the need and value of convergence across their fields and with society. Convergence advances an integrative approach across human dimensions, is based on the material unity of nature, and is best facilitated by a holistic approach with shared methodologies, theories, and goals. Convergence seeks to transcend existing human conflicts to achieve vastly improved conditions for work, learning, aging, and physical and cognitive wellness and to achieve shared human goals. Seven theories offer different perspectives on this complex dynamic and suggest why this century may be the Era of Convergence: (1) Economic Growth, (2) Specialization Network, (3) Reverse Salient, (4) Fundamental Principles, (5) Progress Asymptote, (6) Exogenous Revolution, and (7) Social Problems. Science and technology should serve the needs of human beings, and innovation is a complex social enterprise. Thus, convergence must include transformative tools, ethics, the social sciences, political diversity, the arts, and humanities. For the sake of clarity and comparison, the chapters of this handbook are organized in six sections: (1) Concepts and Methods, (2) Foundational Technologies Platform, (3) Human-Scale Platform, (4) Earth-Scale Platform, (5) Societal-Scale Platform, and (6) Convergence in Education.

ACS Style

William Sims Bainbridge; Mihail C. Roco. The Era of Convergence. Handbook of Science and Technology Convergence 2015, 1 -11.

AMA Style

William Sims Bainbridge, Mihail C. Roco. The Era of Convergence. Handbook of Science and Technology Convergence. 2015; ():1-11.

Chicago/Turabian Style

William Sims Bainbridge; Mihail C. Roco. 2015. "The Era of Convergence." Handbook of Science and Technology Convergence , no. : 1-11.

Book chapter
Published: 23 September 2015 in Handbook of Science and Technology Convergence
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Convergence of science and technology with society entails globalization, but will not necessarily lead to uniformity across nations or institutions of society. In the past, technologies differed from one place to another not only because societies differed in terms of their level of development but also because of contrasting natural conditions, historical accidents, and cultural values. Discoveries and inventions do tend to spread from their points of origin to other locations, and extensive research and theorizing have identified a large number and variety of factors that shape this diffusion. Innovation has tended to be localized, for example, in the familiar “Silicon Valley” phenomenon, in which a relatively small number of scientists and engineers communicated intensively with each other, as they collectively progressed. Thus, we cannot be assured that all parts of the globe will be equally creative in innovating, even as they all are affected by it. Over time, however, cycles of convergence and divergence can ensure dynamism on the global scale.

ACS Style

William Sims Bainbridge. Science and Technology Globalization. Handbook of Science and Technology Convergence 2015, 1 -10.

AMA Style

William Sims Bainbridge. Science and Technology Globalization. Handbook of Science and Technology Convergence. 2015; ():1-10.

Chicago/Turabian Style

William Sims Bainbridge. 2015. "Science and Technology Globalization." Handbook of Science and Technology Convergence , no. : 1-10.

Book chapter
Published: 23 September 2015 in Handbook of Science and Technology Convergence
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For a century, a key component of social scientific understanding of sustainability on Earth has been the theory that human population growth would gracefully adjust toward stability as the entire world became technologically modern. However, today this theory is in serious doubt, and it is equally plausible to argue that population will grow to natural limits set by starvation and warfare, or that it will shrink to a less violent human extinction. Many current policy debates are affected by these uncertainties, in such areas as national defense, immigration, education, and health care. Only the convergence of social and biological sciences, assisted by contributions from many other technical fields, will achieve a proper understanding of the complex systemic processes involved to identify the most humane and effective policies. Thus, convergence of science and technology will be required to achieve beneficial convergence of all human beings into a single healthy and prosperous society.

ACS Style

William S. Bainbridge. Demographic Transition. Handbook of Science and Technology Convergence 2015, 1 -10.

AMA Style

William S. Bainbridge. Demographic Transition. Handbook of Science and Technology Convergence. 2015; ():1-10.

Chicago/Turabian Style

William S. Bainbridge. 2015. "Demographic Transition." Handbook of Science and Technology Convergence , no. : 1-10.

Book chapter
Published: 08 September 2015 in Handbook of Science and Technology Convergence
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Throughout its history, science has benefited from contributions made by amateurs, but since the creation of Internet an increasing number of important projects have recruited large numbers of ordinary people to their teams, in what is now called citizen science. Prominent examples include Galaxy Zoo in which volunteers annotate photographs of distant galaxies and eBird in which bird watchers systematically document their observations out in the field. This phenomenon has become sufficiently extensive that several experts have offered typologies for classifying projects, establishing citizen science as a new research field in its own right. Among the implications for general science and technology convergence is the fact that the nature of expertise may shift, offloading much of the detailed technical knowledge onto information systems, and clarifying theoretical concepts, motivated by the need to integrate into the community many nonscientists, but in consequence also making it easier for a scientist in one field to participate in another. Consideration of citizen social science illuminates how citizen science more generally can facilitate convergence of science with society, guided by fundamental research on how science is understood by nonspecialists.

ACS Style

William Sims Bainbridge. Citizen Science. Handbook of Science and Technology Convergence 2015, 1 -11.

AMA Style

William Sims Bainbridge. Citizen Science. Handbook of Science and Technology Convergence. 2015; ():1-11.

Chicago/Turabian Style

William Sims Bainbridge. 2015. "Citizen Science." Handbook of Science and Technology Convergence , no. : 1-11.

Book chapter
Published: 08 September 2015 in Handbook of Science and Technology Convergence
Reads 0
Downloads 0

Patents, copyrights, trademarks, and other forms of intellectual property protection are crucial ways in which society rewards inventors and other creative individuals. Yet convergence across fields of science and technology increases the probability of negative impacts, such as “patent thickets” in which it becomes difficult to combine patents that belong to different holders, in order to create a new product or industry. While some philosophers believed intellectual property was a natural right, it generally is explained in terms of its utility for society in encouraging innovation. Yet monopolies may file blocking patents, with no intention of using them but merely to prevent other companies from competing, and at the opposite extreme, today’s information technologies make copying of many forms of communication so easy that they severely undermine copyright protections. Norms of intellectual property harmonize with well-established societal institutions, yet many fields of science and engineering are more like social movements and thus less compatible with rigid rules. To the extent that science and technology convergence is itself a social movement, it will encourage research and debate about what norms are most appropriate in different areas and during the chaotic periods when they converge.

ACS Style

William Sims Bainbridge. Intellectual Property Rights. Handbook of Science and Technology Convergence 2015, 1 -11.

AMA Style

William Sims Bainbridge. Intellectual Property Rights. Handbook of Science and Technology Convergence. 2015; ():1-11.

Chicago/Turabian Style

William Sims Bainbridge. 2015. "Intellectual Property Rights." Handbook of Science and Technology Convergence , no. : 1-11.

Book chapter
Published: 08 September 2015 in Handbook of Science and Technology Convergence
Reads 0
Downloads 0

The legacy of the twentieth century is mixed to say the least, marked by two world wars that increased the human capacity for slaughter, the development of biotechnologies and information technologies that transformed many aspects of life, and the emergence of profound intellectual debates about the possibility of planning a better future. A brief survey of civilization theories, which had fallen out of fashion by the beginning of the present century, reveals that they raise questions that deserve fresh consideration. Beginning in the year 2000, a conference on the societal implication of nanotechnology and four conferences on converging technologies launched a concentrated effort to understand how the components of modern science, technology, and society already interact and could cooperate more beneficially. On that basis, the second decade of the twenty-first century launched a comprehensive exploration effort, communicated through a substantial book-length report titled Convergence of Knowledge, Technology and Society and this Handbook of Science and Technology Convergence. In the context of sophisticated ethical analysis and social science, we may have reached the point at which the governance institutions of society require redesign.

ACS Style

William Sims Bainbridge. Twenty-First Century Society. Handbook of Science and Technology Convergence 2015, 1 -12.

AMA Style

William Sims Bainbridge. Twenty-First Century Society. Handbook of Science and Technology Convergence. 2015; ():1-12.

Chicago/Turabian Style

William Sims Bainbridge. 2015. "Twenty-First Century Society." Handbook of Science and Technology Convergence , no. : 1-12.

Book chapter
Published: 08 September 2015 in Handbook of Science and Technology Convergence
Reads 0
Downloads 0

In order to understand discovery and innovation, social scientists and historians have developed several systems for mapping kinds of thought and action, especially to learn where the convergence of multiple factors may achieve unusual progress. Even a simple descriptive scheme provides perspectives from which to see insights, such as how vision-inspired research can literally think outside the box. Thus it is worth considering how the individual scientist or engineer thinks, using a mind that is not merely the result of technical education, but that also reflects human personality dispositions. Yet progress requires individuals to cooperate, in teams and communication networks, through a dynamic division of labor assigning different roles to participants, according to changing conditions and opportunities. The convergence-divergence cycle plays out in ever more complex ways, as humanity becomes integrated into a single information society, so new kinds of research on the very dimensions of research will be required.

ACS Style

William Sims Bainbridge. Dimensions of Research. Handbook of Science and Technology Convergence 2015, 1 -10.

AMA Style

William Sims Bainbridge. Dimensions of Research. Handbook of Science and Technology Convergence. 2015; ():1-10.

Chicago/Turabian Style

William Sims Bainbridge. 2015. "Dimensions of Research." Handbook of Science and Technology Convergence , no. : 1-10.

Book chapter
Published: 08 September 2015 in Handbook of Science and Technology Convergence
Reads 0
Downloads 0

Convergence of science with society will require convergence of the social sciences, because despite efforts over the years to unite them, the social sciences remain fragmented today as they were a century ago. The most notable past attempt was “social relations” centered at Harvard University, the combination of sociology, anthropology, and social aspects of psychology, but it failed rather decisively. Today, new research methods employing computer science and information technology offer the potential for a successful unification, building on prior quantitative methodologies such as public opinion research in political science and sociology. Culture may not be the only concept suitable for facilitating the convergence of the social sciences, but it is an especially powerful one in the light of Internet, and could provide the impetus for a more general partnership across the social sciences.

ACS Style

William Sims Bainbridge. Cultural Science. Handbook of Science and Technology Convergence 2015, 1 -10.

AMA Style

William Sims Bainbridge. Cultural Science. Handbook of Science and Technology Convergence. 2015; ():1-10.

Chicago/Turabian Style

William Sims Bainbridge. 2015. "Cultural Science." Handbook of Science and Technology Convergence , no. : 1-10.

Book chapter
Published: 21 August 2015 in Handbook of Science and Technology Convergence
Reads 0
Downloads 0

Modern information technology is transforming the collection, management, and sharing of scientific data in ways that greatly encourage convergence. Data-intensive science has evolved beyond the point at which all the information required for a research study can be centrally located, so interoperability across systems is required, with the additional benefit that data from different sources can be combined. Interoperability of heterogeneous data is a difficult challenge, requiring carefully specified metadata and well-conceptualized data management approaches like Digital Object Architecture. Scientific literature has become so complex and voluminous that it also must be managed in new ways, for example, using knowledge graphs to map connections as in Semantic Medline. In the commercial realm, systems like Google Knowledge Graph and the related Knowledge Vault have begun to appear. For more than a decade, it has been recognized that future science will depend heavily upon distributed resources, including data archives, distant experimental facilities, and domain-specific research tools to enable new scientific discoveries and education across disciplines and geography. Similar approaches will become valuable for the development of abstract theory, for example, the cooperative construction of rigorous modular theories, in fields as diverse as physics and sociology, as scientists around the world contribute concepts and connect them by means of computer-based online tools.

ACS Style

George O. Strawn; William Sims Bainbridge. Information Technology Supported Convergence. Handbook of Science and Technology Convergence 2015, 1 -10.

AMA Style

George O. Strawn, William Sims Bainbridge. Information Technology Supported Convergence. Handbook of Science and Technology Convergence. 2015; ():1-10.

Chicago/Turabian Style

George O. Strawn; William Sims Bainbridge. 2015. "Information Technology Supported Convergence." Handbook of Science and Technology Convergence , no. : 1-10.