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Robert D. Brown
Department of Landscape Architecture and Urban Planning, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA

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Review
Published: 03 August 2021 in Science of The Total Environment
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Heat related morbidity and mortality, especially during extreme heat events, are increasing due to climate change. More Americans die from heat than from all other natural disasters combined. Identifying the populations and locations that are under high risk of heat vulnerability is important for urban planning and design policy making as well as health interventions. An increasing number of heat vulnerability/risk models and indices (HV/R) have been developed based on indicators related to population heat susceptibility such as sociodemographic and environmental factors. The objectives of this study are to summarize and analyze current HV/R's construction, calculation, and validation, evaluate the limitation of these methods, and provide directions for future HV/R and related studies. This systematic review used the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) framework and used 5 datasets for the literature search. Journal articles that developed indices or models to assess population level heat-related vulnerability or risks in the past 50 years were included. A total of 52 papers were included for analysis on model construction, data sources, weighting schemes and model validation. By synthesizing the findings, we suggested: (1) include relevant and accurately measured indicators; (2) select rational weighting methods and; (3) conduct model validation. We also concluded that it is important for future heat vulnerability models and indices studies to: (1) be conducted in more tropical areas; (2) include a comprehensive understanding of energy exchanges between landscape elements and humans; and (3) be applied in urban planning and policy making practice.

ACS Style

Wenwen Cheng; Dongying Li; Zhixin Liu; Robert D. Brown. Approaches for identifying heat-vulnerable populations and locations: A systematic review. Science of The Total Environment 2021, 799, 149417 .

AMA Style

Wenwen Cheng, Dongying Li, Zhixin Liu, Robert D. Brown. Approaches for identifying heat-vulnerable populations and locations: A systematic review. Science of The Total Environment. 2021; 799 ():149417.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Wenwen Cheng; Dongying Li; Zhixin Liu; Robert D. Brown. 2021. "Approaches for identifying heat-vulnerable populations and locations: A systematic review." Science of The Total Environment 799, no. : 149417.

Review article
Published: 27 June 2021 in Environmental Research
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Projections show that Earth's climate will continue to warm concurrent with increases in the percentage of the world's elderly population. With an understanding that the body's resilience to the heat degrades as it ages, these coupled phenomena point to serious concerns of heat-related mortality in growing elderly populations. As many of the people in this age cohort choose to live in managed long-term care facilities, it's imperative that outdoor spaces of these communities be made thermally comfortable so that connections with nature and the promotion of non-sedentary activities are maintained. Studies have shown that simply being outside has a positive impact on a broad range of the psychosocial well-being of older adults. However, these spaces must be designed to afford accessibility, safety, and aesthetically pleasing experiences so that they are taken full advantage of. Here, we employ an integrative review to link ideas from the disciplines of climate science, health and physiology, and landscape architecture to explain the connections between heat, increased morbidity and mortality in aging adults, existing gaps in thermal comfort models, and key strategies in the development of useable, comfortable outdoor spaces for older adults. Integrative reviews allow for new frameworks or perspectives on a subject to be introduced. Uncovering the synergy of these three knowledge bases can contribute to guiding microclimatic research, design practitioners, and care providers as they seek safe, comfortable and inviting outdoor spaces for aging adults.

ACS Style

Daniel J. Vecellio; Eric K. Bardenhagen; Ben Lerman; Robert D. Brown. The role of outdoor microclimatic features at long-term care facilities in advancing the health of its residents: An integrative review and future strategies. Environmental Research 2021, 201, 111583 .

AMA Style

Daniel J. Vecellio, Eric K. Bardenhagen, Ben Lerman, Robert D. Brown. The role of outdoor microclimatic features at long-term care facilities in advancing the health of its residents: An integrative review and future strategies. Environmental Research. 2021; 201 ():111583.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Daniel J. Vecellio; Eric K. Bardenhagen; Ben Lerman; Robert D. Brown. 2021. "The role of outdoor microclimatic features at long-term care facilities in advancing the health of its residents: An integrative review and future strategies." Environmental Research 201, no. : 111583.

Review article
Published: 03 June 2021 in Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews
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Urban heat islands (UHI) in a city tend to vary with changes in time and space. To effectively cope with the accelerating intensity of UHI due to global warming and the resulting damage, it is essential to accurately analyze and understand the spatial and temporal variations of UHI. This study conducted a systematic literature review (SLR) to better understand how existing studies have classified and analyzed UHI variations. Research trends and limitations related to UHI variation were reviewed focusing on 55 studies extracted through a five-stage protocol to identify critical studies. The selected studies were analyzed and synthesized in detail. The results showed that studies use different research ranges, data collection methods, analysis, and prediction models depending on the type of UHI variation. These results also indicate that studies have not used universal and specific protocols that apply to UHI variations. To address the limitations of these studies, it is necessary to develop more specific UHI research design methods and an analytical model that reflects the three-dimensional elements of the collected data. In addition, researchers should develop indexes to explain the spatial and temporal variations of UHIs. Further studies can help establish policies and planning codes to counter the spatiotemporal variability of UHIs.

ACS Style

Se Woong Kim; Robert D. Brown. Urban heat island (UHI) variations within a city boundary: A systematic literature review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 2021, 148, 111256 .

AMA Style

Se Woong Kim, Robert D. Brown. Urban heat island (UHI) variations within a city boundary: A systematic literature review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 2021; 148 ():111256.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Se Woong Kim; Robert D. Brown. 2021. "Urban heat island (UHI) variations within a city boundary: A systematic literature review." Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 148, no. : 111256.

Original paper
Published: 28 April 2021 in International Journal of Biometeorology
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Thermal comfort research has utilized various sensors and models to estimate the mean radiant temperature (MRT) experienced by a human, including the standard black globe thermometer (SGT), acrylic globe thermometers (AGT), and cylindrical radiation thermometers (CRT). Rather than directly measuring radiation, a temperature is measured in the center of these low-cost sensors that can be related to MRT after theoretically accounting for convection. However, these sensors have not been systematically tested under long-term hot and clear conditions. Further, under variable weather conditions, many issues can arise due to slow response times, shape, inaccuracies in material properties and assumptions, and color (albedo, emissivity) inconsistencies. Here, we assess the performance of MRT produced by various heat transfer models, with and without new average surface temperature (\( {\overline{T}}_{\mathrm{s}} \)) correction factors, using five instruments—the SGT (15 cm, black), tan and black CRTs, gray and black 38 mm AGTs—compared to 3D integral radiation measurements. Measurements were taken on an unobscured roof throughout summer-to-early-fall months in Tempe, Arizona, examining 58 full-sun days. Deviations without correcting for asymmetrical surface heating—found to be the main cause of errors—reached ± 15–20 °C MRT. By accounting for asymmetric heating through \( {\overline{T}}_{\mathrm{s}} \) calculations, new corrective algorithms were derived for the low-cost sensor models. Results show significant improvements in the estimated MRT error for each sensor (i.e., ∆MRTmodel − IRM) when applying the \( {\overline{T}}_{\mathrm{s}} \) corrections. The tan MRTCRT improved from 1.9 ± 6.2 to −0.1 ± 4.4 °C, while the gray AGT and SGT showed improvements from −1.6 ± 7.2 to −0.4 ± 6.3 °C and − 6.6 ± 6.4 to − 0.03 ± 5.7 °C, respectively. The new corrections also eliminated dependence on other meteorological factors (zenith, wind speed). From these results, we provide three simple equations for CRT, AGT, and SGT correction for future research use under warm-hot and clear conditions. This study is the most comprehensive empirical assessment of various low-cost instruments with broad applicability in urban climate and biometeorological research.

ACS Style

Jennifer K. Vanos; Konrad Rykaczewski; Ariane Middel; Daniel J. Vecellio; Robert D. Brown; Terry J. Gillespie. Improved methods for estimating mean radiant temperature in hot and sunny outdoor settings. International Journal of Biometeorology 2021, 65, 967 -983.

AMA Style

Jennifer K. Vanos, Konrad Rykaczewski, Ariane Middel, Daniel J. Vecellio, Robert D. Brown, Terry J. Gillespie. Improved methods for estimating mean radiant temperature in hot and sunny outdoor settings. International Journal of Biometeorology. 2021; 65 (6):967-983.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Jennifer K. Vanos; Konrad Rykaczewski; Ariane Middel; Daniel J. Vecellio; Robert D. Brown; Terry J. Gillespie. 2021. "Improved methods for estimating mean radiant temperature in hot and sunny outdoor settings." International Journal of Biometeorology 65, no. 6: 967-983.

Review
Published: 15 February 2021 in Land
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Global climate change and urban heat island intensification are making many cities dangerously hot during heat waves and uncomfortably hot much of the time. Research has identified ways that urban environments can be designed to reduce the heat, but much of the information is too technical or has not been interpreted or communicated so as to be available to landscape architects. This study identifies ways that landscape architecture researchers have applied microclimate information in design to proactively create more thermally comfortable outdoor environments. A systematic review that assessed the growing recognition of microclimatic factors in design revealed four main approaches: principles and guidelines, strategies, mapping, and evaluation. The advantages and limitations of each have been noted, and a diagram has been developed that matches each approach with specific steps in the landscape architectural design process. The study also identified four areas where microclimate has potential for use in landscape architecture but that are currently not being very actively studied: education, modeling and visualization, policy, and ideation. Microclimatic design has the potential to enhance the health and well-being of the public through the design of thermally comfortable outdoor environments.

ACS Style

Jiawei Lin; Robert Brown. Integrating Microclimate into Landscape Architecture for Outdoor Thermal Comfort: A Systematic Review. Land 2021, 10, 196 .

AMA Style

Jiawei Lin, Robert Brown. Integrating Microclimate into Landscape Architecture for Outdoor Thermal Comfort: A Systematic Review. Land. 2021; 10 (2):196.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Jiawei Lin; Robert Brown. 2021. "Integrating Microclimate into Landscape Architecture for Outdoor Thermal Comfort: A Systematic Review." Land 10, no. 2: 196.

Journal article
Published: 12 November 2020 in Sustainability
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There is a high and growing incidence of skin cancer associated with overexposure to the sun. Most of a person’s exposure occurs during their first eighteen years of life. While many children are taught to wear hats and sunscreen, studies indicate these are inadequate. There is a pressing need to improve the design of our landscapes to reduce exposure. Landscape architects can play a key role in driving this process, but only if they understand the factors determining sun protection behaviours among children in the landscape, and how to design for these. We introduced a systematic evidence-based teaching approach to landscape architecture students in New Zealand where the incidence of skin cancer is one of the highest in the world. In this paper, we describe the methods we used to integrate scientific information into a creative design process that included four design phases: (1) review, summary and translation of evidential theory into design guidelines; (2) inventory and analysis of existing schoolyard; (3) redesign of schoolyard; and (4) final design evaluation. We found this process was effective in developing student appreciation for the need to improve sun protection through design, for increasing their understanding of the evidential science, in addition to developing their ability to translate, often inaccessible, evidential data into its spatial form implications. Furthermore, the process led to a high degree of confidence and pride among many students as their resulting design solutions were not only supported by evidence but were often highly creative. Such evidence-based design courses are essential for preparing future landscape architects to design landscapes that significantly reduce the incidence and health effects of skin cancer.

ACS Style

Wendy McWilliam; Andreas Wesener; Anupriya Sukumar; Robert Brown. Reducing the Incidence of Skin Cancer through Landscape Architecture Design Education. Sustainability 2020, 12, 9402 .

AMA Style

Wendy McWilliam, Andreas Wesener, Anupriya Sukumar, Robert Brown. Reducing the Incidence of Skin Cancer through Landscape Architecture Design Education. Sustainability. 2020; 12 (22):9402.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Wendy McWilliam; Andreas Wesener; Anupriya Sukumar; Robert Brown. 2020. "Reducing the Incidence of Skin Cancer through Landscape Architecture Design Education." Sustainability 12, no. 22: 9402.

Journal article
Published: 30 September 2020 in Urban Climate
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Problems caused by urban climate phenomena such as urban heat island intensification, nuisance winds, or the lack of ventilation, are a growing concern with urban population growth and aging infrastructure. While many possible solutions are known, effective adaptation strategies have been insufficiently implemented to ameliorate urban climate problems. Reasons for this ‘implementation gap’ such as the level of awareness about implementable solutions have received little attention in the literature. An important question thus remains unanswered: what do different urban actors (citizens; politicians; urban planners and designers; and urban climate experts) who shape the urban environment and thus its climate, know about urban climate adaptation measures? We conducted a pilot study using semi-structured interviews with specialists in the field of urban sustainability related to urban planning and climate in ten countries worldwide. Interview results indicated that awareness of adaptation measures differs between countries, but even more so between different actor groups. Citizens and politicians are less aware than urban planners or designers and urban climate experts. Awareness raising should involve media campaigns, further education and display of good practice. Politicians should work on better laws and their enforcement and urban climate experts on good knowledge communication.

ACS Style

Sanda Lenzholzer; Gerrit-Jan Carsjens; Robert D. Brown; Silvia Tavares; Jennifer Vanos; Youjoung Kim; Kanghyun Lee. Awareness of urban climate adaptation strategies –an international overview. Urban Climate 2020, 34, 100705 .

AMA Style

Sanda Lenzholzer, Gerrit-Jan Carsjens, Robert D. Brown, Silvia Tavares, Jennifer Vanos, Youjoung Kim, Kanghyun Lee. Awareness of urban climate adaptation strategies –an international overview. Urban Climate. 2020; 34 ():100705.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Sanda Lenzholzer; Gerrit-Jan Carsjens; Robert D. Brown; Silvia Tavares; Jennifer Vanos; Youjoung Kim; Kanghyun Lee. 2020. "Awareness of urban climate adaptation strategies –an international overview." Urban Climate 34, no. : 100705.

Journal article
Published: 25 August 2020 in International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health
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Current methods for estimating heat vulnerability of young athletes use a heat index (HI) or a wet bulb globe thermometer (WBGT), neither of which fully include the environmental or physiological characteristics that can affect a person’s heat budget, particularly where activity occurs on a synthetic surface. This study analyzed and compared the standard methods, HI and WBGT, with a novel and more comprehensive method termed COMFA-Kid (CK) which is based on an energy budget model explicitly designed for youth. The COMFA model was presented at the same time to demonstrate the difference between a child and an adult during activity. Micrometeorological measurements were taken at a synthetic-surfaced football field during mid-day in hot environmental conditions. Standard methods (HI and WBGT) indicated that conditions on the field were relatively safe for youth to engage in activities related to football practice or games, whereas the CK method indicated that conditions were dangerously hot and could lead to exertional heat illness. Estimates using the CK method also indicated that coaches and staff standing on the sidelines, and parents sitting in the stands, would not only be safe from heat but would be thermally comfortable. The difference in thermal comfort experienced by coaches and staff off the field, versus that experienced by young players on the field, could affect decision making regarding the duration and intensity of practices and time in the game. The CK method, which is easy to use and available for modification for specific conditions, would lead to more accurate estimates of heat safety on outdoor synthetic surfaces in particular, and in sports with a high prevalence of heat illness such as football, and should be considered as a complementary or alternative preventive measure against heat.

ACS Style

Wenwen Cheng; J. O. Spengler; Robert D. Brown. A Comprehensive Model for Estimating Heat Vulnerability of Young Athletes. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 2020, 17, 6156 .

AMA Style

Wenwen Cheng, J. O. Spengler, Robert D. Brown. A Comprehensive Model for Estimating Heat Vulnerability of Young Athletes. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2020; 17 (17):6156.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Wenwen Cheng; J. O. Spengler; Robert D. Brown. 2020. "A Comprehensive Model for Estimating Heat Vulnerability of Young Athletes." International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17, no. 17: 6156.

Journal article
Published: 05 August 2020 in Ecological Indicators
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Total impervious area (TIA) is one of the most common measures for predicting runoff yield in hydrologic studies and regulating urbanization in land use policy. Directly connected impervious area (DCIA), a subset of TIA, represents the hydraulic connection between development and underground sewer systems. Which indicator to use in runoff prediction has been subject to debate. The effectiveness of TIA and DCIA in the face of climate variability also remains unclear. The present study empirically assessed the impacts of TIA and DCIA on urban runoff in three metropolitan statistical areas (MSAs) in the U.S. state of Texas. The total monthly runoff depths of 92 watersheds and peak flows of 43 watersheds were computed using streamflow monitored by the U.S. Geological Survey from 2010 to 2017. A series of ordinal logit regression models were developed to determine which imperviousness indicator better predicted probable runoff yield. Additionally, an average marginal effect analysis was performed to investigate how TIA and DCIA responded to changing precipitation depths. The results demonstrate that DCIA outperformed TIA in runoff depth prediction, whereas TIA predicted peak flow better than DCIA. However, for far-above-average runoff, the contribution of DCIA to runoff depth was far greater than that of TIA, but no difference was found for peak flow. The effectiveness of TIA and DCIA also varied by total and 24-hour peak depths of monthly precipitation. After reaching their maximum capacity, both TIA and DCIA became less effective in predicting runoff and did not correlate with rainfall depth in extremely wet months. Meanwhile, the control of TIA and DCIA for runoff volume reduction was most effective for monthly rainfall of a 5% to 10% probability of exceedance in all MSAs, whereas that of peak flow reduction was most effective if the 24-hour peak storm in a month had a 2% to 5% probability of exceedance. The findings of this study demonstrate the hydrologic significance of regulating DCIA over TIA for high-risk runoff under certain rainfall depths and return periods. The study expands the current knowledge of urban hydrology for effective stormwater management and mitigation of future flooding risk.

ACS Style

Wonmin Sohn; Jun-Hyun Kim; Ming-Han Li; Robert D. Brown; Fouad H. Jaber. How does increasing impervious surfaces affect urban flooding in response to climate variability? Ecological Indicators 2020, 118, 106774 .

AMA Style

Wonmin Sohn, Jun-Hyun Kim, Ming-Han Li, Robert D. Brown, Fouad H. Jaber. How does increasing impervious surfaces affect urban flooding in response to climate variability? Ecological Indicators. 2020; 118 ():106774.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Wonmin Sohn; Jun-Hyun Kim; Ming-Han Li; Robert D. Brown; Fouad H. Jaber. 2020. "How does increasing impervious surfaces affect urban flooding in response to climate variability?" Ecological Indicators 118, no. : 106774.

Journal article
Published: 22 July 2020 in Sensors
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Ultraviolet radiation (UVR) can be hazardous to humans, especially children, and is associated with sunburn, melanoma, and the risk of skin cancer. Understanding and estimating adults’ and children’s UVR exposure is critical to the design of effective interventions and the production of healthy UVR environments. Currently, there are limitations to the ways computer modeling and field measurements estimate individual UVR exposure in a given landscape. To address these limitations, this study developed an approach of integral calculation using six-directional (up, down, south, north, east, and west) field-measured UVR data and the estimated body exposure ratios (ER) for both children and adults. This approach showed high agreement when compared to a validated approach using ambient UVR and estimated ER data with a high r-square value (90.72% for child and adult models), and a low mean squared error (6.0% for child model and 5.1% for adult model) in an open area. This approach acting as a complementary tool between the climatology level and individual level can be used to estimate individual UVR exposure in a landscape with a complicated shady environment. In addition, measuring daily UVR data from six directions under open sky conditions confirmed that personal dosimeters underestimate actual individual UVR exposure.

ACS Style

Wenwen Cheng; Robert Brown; David Vernez; Daniel Goldberg. Estimation of Individual Exposure to Erythemal Weighted UVR by Multi-Sensor Measurements and Integral Calculation. Sensors 2020, 20, 4068 .

AMA Style

Wenwen Cheng, Robert Brown, David Vernez, Daniel Goldberg. Estimation of Individual Exposure to Erythemal Weighted UVR by Multi-Sensor Measurements and Integral Calculation. Sensors. 2020; 20 (15):4068.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Wenwen Cheng; Robert Brown; David Vernez; Daniel Goldberg. 2020. "Estimation of Individual Exposure to Erythemal Weighted UVR by Multi-Sensor Measurements and Integral Calculation." Sensors 20, no. 15: 4068.

Journal article
Published: 20 July 2020 in Urban Climate
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Urban climate manifests itself through thermal and wind environments specific to cities and can cause wind danger or overheating. Cities can benefit from preventing these effects through adaptation measures. However, before any action can be taken in improving these urban climate conditions, an awareness of the problems is needed. Numerous studies show that there is awareness of urban climate extremes as a problem, yet that knowledge lacks amongst different actors in society, and may further differ between countries. Therefore, we conducted an international study on the awareness levels regarding urban climate phenomena and the sense of urgency to act within four groups: citizens, local politicians, urban planners and designers, and urban climate experts. Semi-structured interviews with experts in ten countries worldwide were conducted. Results indicate that the urgency to adapt to climate change was acknowledged rather equally for the four groups of actors. In contrast, awareness of urban climate phenomena (urban heat islands and urban wind patterns) amongst citizens and politicians is rather low in most countries. Amongst urban planners and designers and the urban climate experts we observed a generally high awareness regarding urban climate phenomena. Raising awareness requires tailor-made strategies for specific needs of the different actor groups.

ACS Style

Sanda Lenzholzer; Gerrit-Jan Carsjens; Robert D. Brown; Silvia Tavares; Jennifer Vanos; Youjoung Kim; Kanghyun Lee. Urban climate awareness and urgency to adapt: An international overview. Urban Climate 2020, 33, 100667 .

AMA Style

Sanda Lenzholzer, Gerrit-Jan Carsjens, Robert D. Brown, Silvia Tavares, Jennifer Vanos, Youjoung Kim, Kanghyun Lee. Urban climate awareness and urgency to adapt: An international overview. Urban Climate. 2020; 33 ():100667.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Sanda Lenzholzer; Gerrit-Jan Carsjens; Robert D. Brown; Silvia Tavares; Jennifer Vanos; Youjoung Kim; Kanghyun Lee. 2020. "Urban climate awareness and urgency to adapt: An international overview." Urban Climate 33, no. : 100667.

Journal article
Published: 13 June 2020 in Atmosphere
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The frequency and duration of heatwaves are steadily increasing as climate change becomes more serious. These changes particularly endanger the health of those who must work outdoors in hot environments. This study introduces a novel approach to monitor the heat-health of airport outdoor workers using infrared thermography. The faces of airport workers who were refueling airplanes in extreme heat conditions were monitored using a thermal infrared thermometer during their work cycle throughout the day. Changes in temperature on their exposed faces (e.g., the ear, cheek, chin) were monitored throughout the day over a two-month period. In every test, the subject’s face temperature increased, then suddenly dropped for a short time, and then continued increasing. Subjects were also asked to assess their thermal perception of the work each time they were tested throughout the study. They reported that they felt discomfort in terms of thermal comfort when the facial skin temperature went down temporarily before the temperature rose. These results show that the physical measurement criteria when outdoor workers’ thermal health is in jeopardy can be based on the results of facial skin temperature measurements.

ACS Style

Scott Hastings; Se Woong Kim; Robert Brown. Face Temperature as an Indicator of Thermal Stress in Outdoor Work Environments. Atmosphere 2020, 11, 1 .

AMA Style

Scott Hastings, Se Woong Kim, Robert Brown. Face Temperature as an Indicator of Thermal Stress in Outdoor Work Environments. Atmosphere. 2020; 11 (6):1.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Scott Hastings; Se Woong Kim; Robert Brown. 2020. "Face Temperature as an Indicator of Thermal Stress in Outdoor Work Environments." Atmosphere 11, no. 6: 1.

Journal article
Published: 11 May 2020 in Building and Environment
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According to the challenge of global warming, trees play an effective role in reducing heat islands and improving thermal comfort. In this study, the impact of urban greening on microclimate and pedestrian comfort is studied using ENVI met v4 for a residential district in Tabriz, Iran. In-situ measurements of air temperature and relative humidity have been preliminary performed on ten points in the studied site and collected data used to successfully validate the model. Four scenarios with different trees species and patterns were simulated during typical summer and winter days, to assess benefits and disadvantages during different seasons, in terms of air temperature (Ta) and relative humidity (RH), mean radiant temperature (Tmrt) and physiologically equivalent temperature (PET). Result showed that the best scenario provides great summer cooling without compromising winter comfort. In summer Ta and Tmrt are decreased by respectively 0.29 °C and 20.04 °C; while in winter, they reach respectively 6.92 °C and 13.22 °C, compared the reference scenario characterised by 6.28 °C (Ta) and 23.47 °C (Tmrt). These results in a summer PET improvement from 34.92 °C to 26.16 °C, thus moving from an original hot thermal sensation to a slightly warm one. Based on the outcomes of the study, it is possible to provide useful design recommendation for urban adaptation plans.

ACS Style

Saeid Teshnehdel; Hassan Akbari; Elisa Di Giuseppe; Robert D. Brown. Effect of tree cover and tree species on microclimate and pedestrian comfort in a residential district in Iran. Building and Environment 2020, 178, 106899 .

AMA Style

Saeid Teshnehdel, Hassan Akbari, Elisa Di Giuseppe, Robert D. Brown. Effect of tree cover and tree species on microclimate and pedestrian comfort in a residential district in Iran. Building and Environment. 2020; 178 ():106899.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Saeid Teshnehdel; Hassan Akbari; Elisa Di Giuseppe; Robert D. Brown. 2020. "Effect of tree cover and tree species on microclimate and pedestrian comfort in a residential district in Iran." Building and Environment 178, no. : 106899.

Journal article
Published: 07 March 2020 in Urban Forestry & Urban Greening
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Urban residents are suffering from increased heat stress because of urban heat island intensification in combination with global climate change. Trees have been widely used for improving human thermal comfort. However, when it comes to practical design, it is not always clear what characteristics of trees are most important or how trees should be arranged to optimize thermal conditions. This study undertook an in-depth analysis of several tree species in various configurations. Fifty scenarios were evaluated in terms of how each tree and each configuration affected the energy fluxes of a person on hot sunny days. Results showed that the largest effect in all scenarios was on radiation flux, with a much smaller effect on the convective and evaporative fluxes. An even-distribution of trees was found to be overall most effective as it maximized the shaded area by avoiding unnecessary overlap. While the solar radiation reduction was the largest effect, a detailed analysis provided additional insight into the sometimes-large effect of terrestrial radiation. Taller trees with low branching height and dense crowns had the largest effect on solar radiation reduction. Terrestrial radiation was most affected by leaf albedo and sky view factor. Buildings surrounding a treed area increased both the solar radiation (through reflection) and terrestrial radiation (through emission from hot surfaces). The results are universally applicable as the tree characteristics are not species-specific, and the energy fluxes are based on first principles.

ACS Style

Zhixin Liu; Robert D. Brown; Senlin Zheng; Yi Jiang; Lihua Zhao. An in-depth analysis of the effect of trees on human energy fluxes. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening 2020, 50, 126646 .

AMA Style

Zhixin Liu, Robert D. Brown, Senlin Zheng, Yi Jiang, Lihua Zhao. An in-depth analysis of the effect of trees on human energy fluxes. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening. 2020; 50 ():126646.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Zhixin Liu; Robert D. Brown; Senlin Zheng; Yi Jiang; Lihua Zhao. 2020. "An in-depth analysis of the effect of trees on human energy fluxes." Urban Forestry & Urban Greening 50, no. : 126646.

Technical note
Published: 25 February 2020 in Land
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Landscape architecture programs in the United States are assessed based on the quality of the professional education received by their students. Research is becoming an increasingly important part of the profession as evidence-based landscape architecture grows, and it is critical that university faculty provide information that can be used in professional practice to resolve important environmental and social issues. In many universities, individual landscape architecture faculty are encouraged to conduct research and their performance is evaluated based largely on the quantity and quality of their scholarly output. This paper used publicly-available information to conduct a citation analysis for individual faculty and professionally accredited landscape architecture programs across the US. There was a wide range in the contribution level with some programs and some individuals who were very productive, while many others contributed very little. This might point to an attempt by programs to maintain a balance between scholarly contributions and the education of professional landscape architects. As research becomes an increasing important part of the profession, the productive programs and individuals identified in this study might provide models for others to emulate.

ACS Style

Robert D. Brown; Tamanna Tasnum; Youjoung Kim. Assessing U.S. Landscape Architecture Faculty Research Contribution. Land 2020, 9, 64 .

AMA Style

Robert D. Brown, Tamanna Tasnum, Youjoung Kim. Assessing U.S. Landscape Architecture Faculty Research Contribution. Land. 2020; 9 (3):64.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Robert D. Brown; Tamanna Tasnum; Youjoung Kim. 2020. "Assessing U.S. Landscape Architecture Faculty Research Contribution." Land 9, no. 3: 64.

Journal article
Published: 13 February 2020 in Sustainability
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More than 80% of the people in the USA and Canada live in cities. Urban development replaces natural environments with built environments resulting in limited access to outdoor environments which are critical to human health and well-being. In addition, many urban open spaces are unused because of poor design. This paper describes case studies where traditional landscape architectural design approaches would have compromised design success, while evidence-based landscape architecture (EBLA) resulted in a successful product. Examples range from school-yard design that provides safe levels of solar radiation for children, to neighborhood parks and sidewalks that encourage people to walk and enjoy nearby nature. Common characteristics for integrating EBLA into private, public, and academic landscape architecture practice are outlined along with a discussion of some of the opportunities and barriers to implementation.

ACS Style

Robert D. Brown; Robert C. Corry. Evidence-Based Landscape Architecture for Human Health and Well-Being. Sustainability 2020, 12, 1360 .

AMA Style

Robert D. Brown, Robert C. Corry. Evidence-Based Landscape Architecture for Human Health and Well-Being. Sustainability. 2020; 12 (4):1360.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Robert D. Brown; Robert C. Corry. 2020. "Evidence-Based Landscape Architecture for Human Health and Well-Being." Sustainability 12, no. 4: 1360.

Journal article
Published: 21 November 2019 in Sensors
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Most human energy budget models consider a person to be approximately cylindrical in shape when estimating or measuring the amount of radiation that they receive in a given environment. Yet, the most commonly used instrument for measuring the amount of radiation received by a person is the globe thermometer. The spherical shape of this instrument was designed to be used indoors where radiation is received approximately equally from all directions. But in outdoor environments, radiation can be strongly directional, making the sphere an inappropriate shape. The international standard for measuring radiation received by a person, the Integral Radiation Measurement (IRM) method, yields a measure of the Mean Radiant Temperature (Tmrt). This method uses radiometers oriented in the four cardinal directions, plus up and down. However, this setup essentially estimates the amount of energy received by a square peg, not a cylinder. This paper identifies the errors introduced by both the sphere and the peg, and introduces a set of two new instrument that can be used to directly measure the amount of radiation received by a vertical cylinder in outdoor environments. The Cylindrical Pyranometer measures the amount of solar radiation received by a vertical cylinder, and the Cylindrical Pyrgeometer measures the amount of terrestrial radiation received. While the globe thermometer is still valid for use in indoor environments, these two new instruments should become the standard for measuring radiation received by people in outdoor environments.

ACS Style

Robert D. Brown. Correcting the Error in Measuring Radiation Received by a Person: Introducing Cylindrical Radiometers. Sensors 2019, 19, 5085 .

AMA Style

Robert D. Brown. Correcting the Error in Measuring Radiation Received by a Person: Introducing Cylindrical Radiometers. Sensors. 2019; 19 (23):5085.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Robert D. Brown. 2019. "Correcting the Error in Measuring Radiation Received by a Person: Introducing Cylindrical Radiometers." Sensors 19, no. 23: 5085.

Journal article
Published: 29 September 2019 in Sustainability
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Global climate change and intensifying heat islands have reduced human thermal comfort and health in urban outdoor environments. However, there has been little research that has focused on how microclimates affect human thermal comfort, both psychologically and physiologically. We investigated the effect of a range of landscape microclimates on human thermal comfort and health using questionnaires and physiological measurements, including skin temperature, skin conductance, and heart rate variability, and compared the results with the effect of prevailing climate conditions in open spaces. We observed that in landscape microclimates, thermal sensation votes significantly decreased from 1.18 ± 0.66 (warm–hot) to 0.23 ± 0.61 (neutral–slightly warm), and thermal comfort increased from 1.18 ± 0.66 (uncomfortable–neutral) to 0.23 ± 0.61 (neutral–comfortable). In the landscape microclimates, skin temperature and skin conductance decreased 0.3 ± 0.8 °C and 0.6 ± 1.0 μs, respectively, while in the control, these two parameters increased by 0.5 ± 0.9 °C and 0.2 ± 0.7 μs, respectively. Further, in landscape microclimates, subject heart rate variability increased significantly. These results suggest landscape microclimates improve human thermal comfort and health, both psychologically and physiologically. These findings can provide an evidence base that will assist urban planners in designing urban environments for the health and wellbeing of residents.

ACS Style

Binyi Liu; Zefeng Lian; Robert D. Brown. Effect of Landscape Microclimates on Thermal Comfort and Physiological Wellbeing. Sustainability 2019, 11, 5387 .

AMA Style

Binyi Liu, Zefeng Lian, Robert D. Brown. Effect of Landscape Microclimates on Thermal Comfort and Physiological Wellbeing. Sustainability. 2019; 11 (19):5387.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Binyi Liu; Zefeng Lian; Robert D. Brown. 2019. "Effect of Landscape Microclimates on Thermal Comfort and Physiological Wellbeing." Sustainability 11, no. 19: 5387.

Original paper
Published: 15 July 2019 in International Journal of Biometeorology
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The behavioral repertoire and environmental feature needs for thermoregulatory comfort have not been reported in the literature for large captive exotics. An observational study was done to investigate the behavioral repertoire of tigers via continuous observation, while focusing on thermoregulatory behavior, in order to examine behavioral and thermoregulatory needs of these animals, and inform microclimatic landscape design for thermal comfort. Nine Bengal tigers (n = 6 females, n = 3 males) were observed in June 2012, and behavior data were recorded every minute, while thermal images of each individual, wind speed, ambient temperature, and relative humidity were recorded every 15 min. Descriptive statistics were used to analyze the data due to the observatory nature of the study. All tigers spent on average over 45% of the time lying down, less than 19% of the time in direct sunlight and over 20% of their time in the shade. Males did more panting (25.6%) than females (15.1%). There was more individual variation in water and cave usage, compared with shade use and lying behaviors, which could be related to social pressures or basic individual preferences. In summary, shade is a very valuable thermoregulatory resource for tigers. Adding more shade structures to increase thermal comfort and increase activity in these cats (around 10% on average active behaviors) by adding to the space available in the shaded areas.

ACS Style

Judith A. Stryker; Jim L. Atkinson; Robert D. Brown; David Barney; J. Andy B. Robinson; Jay Duncan; Esther J. Finegan. Behavioral repertoire assessment of Bengal tigers (Panthera tigris) with focus on thermoregulatory behavior. International Journal of Biometeorology 2019, 63, 1369 -1379.

AMA Style

Judith A. Stryker, Jim L. Atkinson, Robert D. Brown, David Barney, J. Andy B. Robinson, Jay Duncan, Esther J. Finegan. Behavioral repertoire assessment of Bengal tigers (Panthera tigris) with focus on thermoregulatory behavior. International Journal of Biometeorology. 2019; 63 (10):1369-1379.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Judith A. Stryker; Jim L. Atkinson; Robert D. Brown; David Barney; J. Andy B. Robinson; Jay Duncan; Esther J. Finegan. 2019. "Behavioral repertoire assessment of Bengal tigers (Panthera tigris) with focus on thermoregulatory behavior." International Journal of Biometeorology 63, no. 10: 1369-1379.

Review
Published: 07 February 2019 in Journal of Environmental Management
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Low impact development (LID) has been increasingly practiced since its emergence in the 1990s. Although the hydrological benefits of LIDs have been extensively documented, the climate impact on LID performance remains unclear with increasing variations in spatial and temporal climate patterns. This systematic review contributes to providing a structured summary of research on how LID systems are sensitive to climate variability by empirical and hypothetical research approaches. The selected 46 peer-reviewed journal articles published between 2003 and 2017 were analyzed by key variables, including climatic factors, LID types, and hydrologic measures used to quantify LID performance. A conceptual framework formulated in this study synthesizes the relationship between climate and LID effectiveness. The results of weighted meta-analysis reveal a greater sensitivity of runoff volume to changing storm frequency than peak discharge rates, while the capacity of LID systems to reduce both volume and peak discharge rates diminishes with increasing storm intensity. Future explorations of the sensitivity of LIDs to climate fluctuations will help strategize LID installation for targeted storm patterns and flood mitigation goals. To enhance existing methods and make a balance between empirical and hypothetical knowledge, this study suggests future directions of research and encourages development of effective stormwater management policy.

ACS Style

Wonmin Sohn; Jun-Hyun Kim; Ming-Han Li; Robert Brown. The influence of climate on the effectiveness of low impact development: A systematic review. Journal of Environmental Management 2019, 236, 365 -379.

AMA Style

Wonmin Sohn, Jun-Hyun Kim, Ming-Han Li, Robert Brown. The influence of climate on the effectiveness of low impact development: A systematic review. Journal of Environmental Management. 2019; 236 ():365-379.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Wonmin Sohn; Jun-Hyun Kim; Ming-Han Li; Robert Brown. 2019. "The influence of climate on the effectiveness of low impact development: A systematic review." Journal of Environmental Management 236, no. : 365-379.