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Fluorescein isothiocyanate-dextran (FITC-d) is being used as an indicator of intestinal paracellular permeability in poultry research. Especially with the industry moving toward antibiotic-free production, intestinal function and integrity issues have been a research focus. An increasing number of scientific conference abstracts and peer-reviewed journal publications have shown that 4-kDa FITC-d is an efficient marker candidate for measurement of intestinal permeability and can be applied in broiler research. However, experimental protocols vary by personnel, instruments used, and research institution, and potential concerns related to this assay have yet to receive the same amount of attention. Understanding protocol consistency within and across laboratories is vital for obtaining accurate, consistent, and comparable experimental results. This review is aimed to 1) summarize different FITC-d assays in broiler research from peer-reviewed publications during the past 6 yr and 2) discuss factors that can potentially affect intestinal permeability results when conducting the FITC-d assay. In summary, it is essential to pay attention to details, including gavage dose, fasting period, sample handling and lab analysis details when conducting the assay in broiler research. Differences in birds (breed/strain, age, and gender) and experimental design (diet, health status/challenge model, and sampling age) need to be considered when comparing serum FITC-d concentration results between different in vivo animal trials.
Jundi Liu; Po-Yun Teng; Woo K. Kim; Todd J. Applegate. Assay considerations for fluorescein isothiocyanate-dextran (FITC-d): an indicator of intestinal permeability in broiler chickens. Poultry Science 2021, 100, 101202 .
AMA StyleJundi Liu, Po-Yun Teng, Woo K. Kim, Todd J. Applegate. Assay considerations for fluorescein isothiocyanate-dextran (FITC-d): an indicator of intestinal permeability in broiler chickens. Poultry Science. 2021; 100 (7):101202.
Chicago/Turabian StyleJundi Liu; Po-Yun Teng; Woo K. Kim; Todd J. Applegate. 2021. "Assay considerations for fluorescein isothiocyanate-dextran (FITC-d): an indicator of intestinal permeability in broiler chickens." Poultry Science 100, no. 7: 101202.
One of the concerns when using grain ingredients in feed formulation for livestock and poultry diets is mycotoxin contamination. Aflatoxin, fumonisin, ochratoxin, trichothecene (deoxynivalenol, T-2 and HT-2) and zearalenone (ZEN) are mycotoxins that have been frequently reported in animal feed. ZEN, which has raised additional concern due to its estrogenic response in animals, is mainly produced by Fusarium graminearum (F. graminearum), F. culmorum, F. cerealis, F. equiseti, F. crookwellense and F. semitectums, and often co-occurs with deoxynivalenol in grains. The commonly elaborated derivatives of ZEN are α-zearalenol, β-zearalenol, zearalanone, α-zearalanol, and β-zearalanol. Other modified and masked forms of ZEN (including the extractable conjugated and non-extractable bound derivatives of ZEN) have also been quantified. In this review, common dose of ZEN in animal feed was summarized. The absorption rate, distribution (“carry-over”), major metabolites, toxicity and estrogenicity of ZEN related to poultry, swine and ruminants are discussed.
Jundi Liu; Todd Applegate. Zearalenone (ZEN) in Livestock and Poultry: Dose, Toxicokinetics, Toxicity and Estrogenicity. Toxins 2020, 12, 1 .
AMA StyleJundi Liu, Todd Applegate. Zearalenone (ZEN) in Livestock and Poultry: Dose, Toxicokinetics, Toxicity and Estrogenicity. Toxins. 2020; 12 (6):1.
Chicago/Turabian StyleJundi Liu; Todd Applegate. 2020. "Zearalenone (ZEN) in Livestock and Poultry: Dose, Toxicokinetics, Toxicity and Estrogenicity." Toxins 12, no. 6: 1.
Enteric infections such as coccidiosis and necrotic enteritis in broilers may have a large influence on the endogenous amino acids (eAA) losses within the gastrointestinal tract (GIT). Although not much is known on this topic, more information is available on the effects of these diseases on the apparent ileal digestibility (AID) of amino acids. There are many factors that must be considered when attempting to determine the intestinal flow of eAA, including age of the birds, strain, presence or absence of a pathogen, intestinal metabolism of amino acids, among others. The GIT and the liver share the responsibility of releasing amino acids into the peripheral blood which are necessary to support protein synthesis. In general, intestinal amino acid metabolism reflects a very active organ system that will meet its own requirement for amino acids first, before delivering amino acids to the rest of the organism. Higher concentrations of some amino acids from highly available sources may help compensate for malabsorption and eAA losses during periods of intestinal challenge. Threonine (Thr) is a major constituent of mucins that are secreted into the intestine to act as a barrier against infectious and antigenic substances; glutamine (Gln) is a conditionally essential nutrient under stress conditions; arginine (Arg) enhances the intestinal barrier function and modulates the intestinal microbiota. Sulfur amino acids (SAA) and their metabolites help maintain intestinal integrity and function of mainly rapid proliferating cells such as enterocytes. Tryptophan (Trp) has essential roles on the metabolic GIT function, mainly through the role of its metabolites, including antioxidant properties and improvement of immune function. Therefore, the objectives of this review are to discuss: 1) the factors that influence eAA flow within the intestine with special emphasis on enteric infections; and 2) how the utilization and metabolism of amino acids by intestinal cells are affected by these infections and by dietary amino acids, with a main focus on Thr, Arg, Gln, SAA, and Trp.
Cristiano Bortoluzzi; J.I.M. Fernandes; K. Doranalli; T.J. Applegate. Effects of dietary amino acids in ameliorating intestinal function during enteric challenges in broiler chickens. Animal Feed Science and Technology 2019, 262, 114383 .
AMA StyleCristiano Bortoluzzi, J.I.M. Fernandes, K. Doranalli, T.J. Applegate. Effects of dietary amino acids in ameliorating intestinal function during enteric challenges in broiler chickens. Animal Feed Science and Technology. 2019; 262 ():114383.
Chicago/Turabian StyleCristiano Bortoluzzi; J.I.M. Fernandes; K. Doranalli; T.J. Applegate. 2019. "Effects of dietary amino acids in ameliorating intestinal function during enteric challenges in broiler chickens." Animal Feed Science and Technology 262, no. : 114383.
The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of the dietary supplementation of Bacillus subtilis DSM 32315 (probiotic) on the performance and intestinal microbiota of broiler chickens infected with Clostridium perfringens (CP). One-day-old broiler chickens were assigned to 3 treatments with 8 replicate pens (50 birds/pen). The treatments were: non-infected control; infected control; and infected supplemented with probiotic (1 × 106 CFU/g of feed). On day of hatch, all birds were sprayed with a coccidia vaccine based on the manufacturer recommended dosage. On d 18–20 the infected birds were inoculated with CP via feed. Necrotic enteritis (NE) lesion score was performed on d 21. Digestive tract of 2 birds/pen was collected on d 21 to analyze the ileal and cecal microbiota by 16S rRNA sequencing. Performance was evaluated on d 28 and 42. On d 21, probiotic supplementation reduced (p < 0.001) the severity of NE related lesion versus infected control birds. On d 28, feed efficiency was improved (p < 0.001) in birds supplemented with probiotic versus infected control birds. On d 42, body weight gain (BW gain) and feed conversion ratio (FCR) were improved (p < 0.001) in probiotic supplemented birds versus infected control birds. The diversity, composition and predictive function of the intestinal microbial digesta changed with the infection but the supplementation of probiotic reduced these variations. Therefore, dietary supplementation of Bacillus subtilis DSM 32315 was beneficial in attenuating the negative effects of CP challenge on the performance and intestinal microbiota of broilers chickens.
Cristiano Bortoluzzi; Bruno Serpa Vieira; Juliano Cesar De Paula Dorigam; Anita Menconi; Adebayo Sokale; Kiran Doranalli; Todd Jay Applegate. Bacillus subtilis DSM 32315 Supplementation Attenuates the Effects of Clostridium perfringens Challenge on the Growth Performance and Intestinal Microbiota of Broiler Chickens. Microorganisms 2019, 7, 71 .
AMA StyleCristiano Bortoluzzi, Bruno Serpa Vieira, Juliano Cesar De Paula Dorigam, Anita Menconi, Adebayo Sokale, Kiran Doranalli, Todd Jay Applegate. Bacillus subtilis DSM 32315 Supplementation Attenuates the Effects of Clostridium perfringens Challenge on the Growth Performance and Intestinal Microbiota of Broiler Chickens. Microorganisms. 2019; 7 (3):71.
Chicago/Turabian StyleCristiano Bortoluzzi; Bruno Serpa Vieira; Juliano Cesar De Paula Dorigam; Anita Menconi; Adebayo Sokale; Kiran Doranalli; Todd Jay Applegate. 2019. "Bacillus subtilis DSM 32315 Supplementation Attenuates the Effects of Clostridium perfringens Challenge on the Growth Performance and Intestinal Microbiota of Broiler Chickens." Microorganisms 7, no. 3: 71.
Even though the intestine represents a small proportion of body weight in broiler chickens, its requirements for energy and nutrients are high. A healthy broiler intestine has a well-coordinated immune system that must accommodate commensal microbiota while inhibiting the colonization and proliferation of harmful pathogens. Modern commercial intensive practices impose a high sanitary pressure that may exacerbate the progression of intestinal diseases such as coccidiosis and necrotic enteritis. The incidence of these diseases may increase worldwide due to mounting pressure to limit the use of subtherapeutic antibiotics as growth promoters or ionophores for coccidial suppression/prevention in the diets of broilers. For this reason, altering dietary concentrations of some amino acids, particularly trophic amino acids, may be beneficial to modulate the intestinal physiology, immunology, and microbiology of broilers. Trophic amino acids, such as threonine, arginine, and glutamine, play a very important role on the intestinal mucosa and may support increased epithelial turnover rates to improve intestinal recovery following an insult. Furthermore, these amino acids may help to minimize over-activation of the innate immune system, which is the most expensive in terms of nutrients and energy, as well as modulate the intestinal microbiota. The objective of this review is to provide insight into the potential role of trophic amino acids in these processes and report some updated studies of their use in diets for broiler chickens.
C Bortoluzzi; S J Rochell; T J Applegate. Threonine, arginine, and glutamine: Influences on intestinal physiology, immunology, and microbiology in broilers. Poultry Science 2018, 97, 937 -945.
AMA StyleC Bortoluzzi, S J Rochell, T J Applegate. Threonine, arginine, and glutamine: Influences on intestinal physiology, immunology, and microbiology in broilers. Poultry Science. 2018; 97 (3):937-945.
Chicago/Turabian StyleC Bortoluzzi; S J Rochell; T J Applegate. 2018. "Threonine, arginine, and glutamine: Influences on intestinal physiology, immunology, and microbiology in broilers." Poultry Science 97, no. 3: 937-945.
Secretory IgA (sIgA) and its transcytosis receptor, polymeric immunoglobulin receptor (pIgR), along with mucus, form the first lines of intestinal defense. Threonine (Thr) is a major component of intestinal mucins and IgA, which are highly secreted under lipopolysaccharide (LPS) induced inflammation. In the current study, the effect of Thr on the secretory immune system was determined in an ex vivo chicken ileal explant model. Results showed that a 2-hour Thr-deprivation of culture medium induced a compensatory increase in the mRNA expression of interleukin-8 (IL-8), mucin 2 (MUC2), and IgA during LPS challenge, and this increase was suppressed with Thr addition to the media (P ≤ 0.05), suggesting that Thr was required for mucin and IgA production after exposure to LPS. Similarly, a 2-hour culture of explants from birds fed a Thr adequate diet showed an increase in the mRNA abundance of IL-8, MUC2, and IgA with LPS treatment (P ≤ 0.003), which had a trend to be attenuated with Thr supplementation in the media (P ≤ 0.10). In contrast, explants from birds fed a Thr deficient diet had no response to LPS treatment. These results indicated that in vivo Thr deficiency induced impaired inflammatory and secretory immune responses in broiler chicks. Furthermore, our results revealed that induction of MUC2 and pIgR gene expression required nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) activation. Additionally, IgA transcytosis may be dependent on extracellular-regulated protein kinase (ERK) activation, which may indirectly impact pIgR gene expression.
Q. Zhang; X. Chen; S. D. Eicher; K. M. Ajuwon; T. J. Applegate. Effect of threonine on secretory immune system using a chicken intestinal ex vivo model with lipopolysaccharide challenge. Poultry Science 2017, 96, 3043 -3051.
AMA StyleQ. Zhang, X. Chen, S. D. Eicher, K. M. Ajuwon, T. J. Applegate. Effect of threonine on secretory immune system using a chicken intestinal ex vivo model with lipopolysaccharide challenge. Poultry Science. 2017; 96 (9):3043-3051.
Chicago/Turabian StyleQ. Zhang; X. Chen; S. D. Eicher; K. M. Ajuwon; T. J. Applegate. 2017. "Effect of threonine on secretory immune system using a chicken intestinal ex vivo model with lipopolysaccharide challenge." Poultry Science 96, no. 9: 3043-3051.
Usama Mahmoud; O.A. Amen; T.J. Applegate; H.W. Cheng. Brazilian Propolis Effects on Growth, Productivity Performance, Gut Characteristics and Physiological Changes in Broiler Chickens. International Journal of Poultry Science 2017, 16, 169 -179.
AMA StyleUsama Mahmoud, O.A. Amen, T.J. Applegate, H.W. Cheng. Brazilian Propolis Effects on Growth, Productivity Performance, Gut Characteristics and Physiological Changes in Broiler Chickens. International Journal of Poultry Science. 2017; 16 (5):169-179.
Chicago/Turabian StyleUsama Mahmoud; O.A. Amen; T.J. Applegate; H.W. Cheng. 2017. "Brazilian Propolis Effects on Growth, Productivity Performance, Gut Characteristics and Physiological Changes in Broiler Chickens." International Journal of Poultry Science 16, no. 5: 169-179.
Deoxynivalenol (DON) and fumonisins (FB) are the most frequently encountered mycotoxins produced by Fusarium species in livestock diets. The effect of subclinical doses of mycotoxins in chickens is largely unknown, and in particular the susceptibility of birds to pathogenic challenge when fed these fungal metabolites. Therefore, the present study reports the effects of DON and FB on chickens challenged with Eimeria spp, responsible for coccidiosis. Broilers were fed diets from hatch to day 20, containing no mycotoxins, 1.5 mg DON/kg, 20 mg FB/kg, or both toxins (12 pens/diet; 7 birds/pen). At day 14, six pens of birds per diet (half of the birds) were challenged with a 25×-recommended dose of coccidial vaccine, and all birds (challenged and unchallenged) were sampled 6 days later. As expected, performance of birds was strongly affected by the coccidial challenge. Ingestion of mycotoxins did not further affect the growth but repartitioned the rate of reduction (between the fraction due to the change in maintenance and feed efficiency), and reduced apparent nitrogen digestibility. Intestinal lesions and number of oocysts in the jejunal mucosa and feces of challenged birds were more frequent and intense in the birds fed mycotoxins than in birds fed control feed. The upregulation of cytokines (interleukin (IL) IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8 and IL-10) following coccidial infection was higher in the jejunum of birds fed mycotoxins. Further, the higher intestinal immune response was associated with a higher percentage of T lymphocytes CD4+CD25+, also called Tregs, observed in the cecal tonsils of challenged birds fed mycotoxins. Interestingly, the increase in FB biomarker of exposure (sphinganine/sphingosine ratio in serum and liver) suggested a higher absorption and bioavailability of FB in challenged birds. The interaction of DON and FB was very dependent on the endpoint assessed, with three endpoints reporting antagonism, nine additivity, and two synergism. In conclusion, subclinical doses of DON and FB showed little effects in unchallenged chickens, but seem to result in metabolic and immunologic disturbances that amplify the severity of coccidiosis.
Bertrand Grenier; Ilse Dohnal; Revathi Shanmugasundaram; Susan D. Eicher; Ramesh K. Selvaraj; Gerd Schatzmayr; Todd J. Applegate. Susceptibility of Broiler Chickens to Coccidiosis When Fed Subclinical Doses of Deoxynivalenol and Fumonisins—Special Emphasis on the Immunological Response and the Mycotoxin Interaction. Toxins 2016, 8, 231 .
AMA StyleBertrand Grenier, Ilse Dohnal, Revathi Shanmugasundaram, Susan D. Eicher, Ramesh K. Selvaraj, Gerd Schatzmayr, Todd J. Applegate. Susceptibility of Broiler Chickens to Coccidiosis When Fed Subclinical Doses of Deoxynivalenol and Fumonisins—Special Emphasis on the Immunological Response and the Mycotoxin Interaction. Toxins. 2016; 8 (8):231.
Chicago/Turabian StyleBertrand Grenier; Ilse Dohnal; Revathi Shanmugasundaram; Susan D. Eicher; Ramesh K. Selvaraj; Gerd Schatzmayr; Todd J. Applegate. 2016. "Susceptibility of Broiler Chickens to Coccidiosis When Fed Subclinical Doses of Deoxynivalenol and Fumonisins—Special Emphasis on the Immunological Response and the Mycotoxin Interaction." Toxins 8, no. 8: 231.
Two experiments were conducted to determine the dietary threonine (Thr) requirement of Pekin ducks from hatch to 14 d of age. In experiment 1, practical corn-soybean meal diets were formulated to contain 0.78, 0.84, 0.90, 0.96, and 1.02% Thr (0.74, 0.83, 0.88, 0.92, and 1.00% Thr on an analyzed basis). In experiment 2, corn-soybean meal diets supplemented with 11 crystalline amino acids were formulated to contain 0.60, 0.70, 0.80, 0.90, 1.00, and 1.10% Thr (0.60, 0.75, 0.89, 0.95, 1.01, and 1.09% Thr on an analyzed basis). In both experiments, diets were fed to 8 replicate cages with 6 male ducks per cage. Body weight and feed intake from each cage were recorded weekly. At 14 d of age, breast meat, ileal digesta, and serum were collected to determine breast meat yield, mucin secretion, and serology parameters. In both studies, the estimated Thr requirement (expressed as % dietary Thr basis) for 14 d BW and BW gain (BWG) by quadratic broken-line (QBL) regression were similar, which were 0.87 and 0.86%, respectively. Additional measures in both experiments resulted in Thr requirements via QBL regression in rank order of crude mucin secretion < breast meat yield < serum immune activity. Summing up the estimates from both studies, the Thr requirement ranged from a low of 0.81% to maximize feed intake (FI) to a high of 1.00% to maximize serum Rb L100 by QBL regression. Correspondingly, the Thr requirement varied between a low of 0.90% to maximize crude mucin secretion on a dry matter intake (DMI) basis and a high of 0.98% to maximize feed-to-gain when using quadratic regression.
Q. Zhang; Q. F. Zeng; P. Cotter; T. J. Applegate. Dietary threonine response of Pekin ducks from hatch to 14 d of age based on performance, serology, and intestinal mucin secretion. Poultry Science 2016, 95, 1348 -1355.
AMA StyleQ. Zhang, Q. F. Zeng, P. Cotter, T. J. Applegate. Dietary threonine response of Pekin ducks from hatch to 14 d of age based on performance, serology, and intestinal mucin secretion. Poultry Science. 2016; 95 (6):1348-1355.
Chicago/Turabian StyleQ. Zhang; Q. F. Zeng; P. Cotter; T. J. Applegate. 2016. "Dietary threonine response of Pekin ducks from hatch to 14 d of age based on performance, serology, and intestinal mucin secretion." Poultry Science 95, no. 6: 1348-1355.
A 20-day trial was conducted to determine the impact of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and dietary protein concentration on performance, nutrient digestibility, and gut health in broiler chicks. The 6 dietary treatments were arranged in a 2 × 3 factorial with 3 crude protein (CP) concentrations (16, 22, and 26%) with or without 1.5 mg/kg AFB1. Each diet was fed to 6 replicate cages (6 chicks per cage) from zero to 20 d of age. Endogenous N and amino acid loss were estimated from birds fed a N-free diet with or without 1.5 mg/kg AFB1. A significant interaction between AFB1 and CP concentration was observed for growth performance, where reduction of BW gain, feed intake, gain:feed ratio, and breast muscle weight by AFB1 were most profound in birds fed the 16%-CP diet, and were completely eliminated when birds were fed the 26%-CP diet (AFB1 by CP interaction; P ≤ 0.023). Similarly, AFB1 reduced serum albumin, total protein, and globulin concentrations in birds fed 16 and 22% CP diets, but not in those fed the 26%-CP (AFB1 by CP interaction; P ≤ 0.071). Gut permeability was increased in birds fed AFB1-contamiated diets as measured by serum lactulose/rhamnose ratio (main effect; P = 0.04). Additionally, AFB1 tended to increase endogenous N loss (P = 0.09), and significantly reduced apparent ileal digestible energy and standardized ileal N and amino acid digestibility in birds fed the 16%-CP diet, while birds fed higher dietary CP were not affected (AFB1 by CP interaction; P ≤ 0.01). Further, AFB1 increased the translation initiation factor 4E-binding protein (4EBP1), claudin1, and multiple jejunal amino acid transporters expression (main effect; P ≤ 0.04). Results from this study indicate that a 1.5 mg AFB1/kg diet significantly impairs growth, major serum biochemistry measures, gut barrier, endogenous loss, and energy and amino acid digestibility. Aflatoxicosis can be augmented by low dietary CP, while higher dietary CP completely eliminated the impairment of performance, serum proteins, and nutrient digestibility from aflatoxicosis in zero to 20 d broiler chicks.
X. Chen; K. Naehrer; T. J. Applegate. Interactive effects of dietary protein concentration and aflatoxin B1 on performance, nutrient digestibility, and gut health in broiler chicks. Poultry Science 2016, 95, 1312 -1325.
AMA StyleX. Chen, K. Naehrer, T. J. Applegate. Interactive effects of dietary protein concentration and aflatoxin B1 on performance, nutrient digestibility, and gut health in broiler chicks. Poultry Science. 2016; 95 (6):1312-1325.
Chicago/Turabian StyleX. Chen; K. Naehrer; T. J. Applegate. 2016. "Interactive effects of dietary protein concentration and aflatoxin B1 on performance, nutrient digestibility, and gut health in broiler chicks." Poultry Science 95, no. 6: 1312-1325.
A 20-day trial was conducted to determine the effects of dietary branched-chain amino acids (BCAA) on performance, nutrient digestibility, and gene expression of the mTOR pathway in broiler chicks when exposed to aflatoxin B1 (AFB1). The 6 dietary treatments were arranged in a 2 × 3 factorial with 3 BCAA concentrations (1.16, 1.94, and 2.73%) with or without 1.5 mg/kg AFB1 (1.77 mg/kg analyzed). Each diet was fed to 8 replicate cages (6 chicks per cage) from 6 to 20 d of age. Exposure to AFB1 significantly reduced gain:feed ratio and breast muscle weight (P < 0.05), and tended to decrease cumulative BW gain (P = 0.087), while increasing dietary BCAA improved all performance measures (P ≤ 0.0002), except relative breast muscle weight. Apparent ileal digestibility of N and 9 amino acids were increased by AFB1 (P ≤ 0.05), but were reduced by higher dietary BCAA (P ≤ 0.023). Jejunum histology was not affected by AFB1, while higher dietary BCAA tended to increase villus height (P = 0.08). Additionally, the gene expression of mTOR pathway (mTOR, 4EBP1, and S6K1) from liver and jejunum were not affected by dietary treatments, while muscle expression of S6K1 tended to be increased by AFB1 (P = 0.07). No significant interaction between AFB1 and dietary BCAA were observed for any measures in the current study. Results from this study suggested that feed AFB1 contamination can significantly reduce growth performance and breast muscle growth in broiler chicks at 20 d. Higher BCAA supply may have beneficial impact on bird performance, but this effect is independent of AFB1 exposure.
X. Chen; Q. Zhang; T. J. Applegate. Impact of dietary branched chain amino acids concentration on broiler chicks during aflatoxicosis. Poultry Science 2016, 95, 1281 -1289.
AMA StyleX. Chen, Q. Zhang, T. J. Applegate. Impact of dietary branched chain amino acids concentration on broiler chicks during aflatoxicosis. Poultry Science. 2016; 95 (6):1281-1289.
Chicago/Turabian StyleX. Chen; Q. Zhang; T. J. Applegate. 2016. "Impact of dietary branched chain amino acids concentration on broiler chicks during aflatoxicosis." Poultry Science 95, no. 6: 1281-1289.
A 14-d study was conducted to determine the impact of dietary crude protein concentration on performance, serum biochemistry, and nutrient digestive functions in Pekin ducklings during aflatoxicosis. A total of 144 male Pekin ducklings were randomly allotted to 4 dietary treatments arranged in a 2 × 2 factorial with 2 crude protein (CP) (20 and 24% on an analyzed basis) with or without 0.2 mg/kg aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) (0.21 mg/kg analyzed). The AFB1 reduced BW gain, feed intake, and breast muscle weight by 33 to 43% (P < 0.0001). Serum concentration of protein, glucose, and Ca were also decreased by AFB1 (P ≤ 0.0015), while pancreatic activities of amylase and lipase were increased by AFB1 (P < 0.005). Apparent N digestibility was not affected by dietary treatment, whereas apparent ileal digestible energy was reduced 7.6% by AFB1 (P = 0.0003). Higher dietary CP improved BW gain, gain:feed ratio, and breast muscle weight (P ≤ 0.021), and tended to improve feed intake (P = 0.094), but did not improve serum measures, digestive enzyme activity, or nutrient digestibility. No statistical interaction of AFB1 by CP was observed for any measures. Results from the current study suggest that AFB1 at low concentration can significantly impair performance of Pekin ducklings primarily through inhibited feed intake, as well as influence nutrient digestion processes (jejunum morphology, digestive enzyme activity, and apparent energy digestibility). Higher dietary CP can improve growth performance of ducklings regardless of AF exposure, but did not interact with dietary AFB1 on performance, serum biochemistry, or nutrient digestion in Pekin ducklings from hatch to 14 d.
X. Chen; R. Murdoch; Q. Zhang; D. J. Shafer; T. J. Applegate. Effects of dietary protein concentration on performance and nutrient digestibility in Pekin ducks during aflatoxicosis. Poultry Science 2016, 95, 834 -841.
AMA StyleX. Chen, R. Murdoch, Q. Zhang, D. J. Shafer, T. J. Applegate. Effects of dietary protein concentration on performance and nutrient digestibility in Pekin ducks during aflatoxicosis. Poultry Science. 2016; 95 (4):834-841.
Chicago/Turabian StyleX. Chen; R. Murdoch; Q. Zhang; D. J. Shafer; T. J. Applegate. 2016. "Effects of dietary protein concentration on performance and nutrient digestibility in Pekin ducks during aflatoxicosis." Poultry Science 95, no. 4: 834-841.
Standardized ileal amino acid digestibility (SIAAD) of 5 samples of corn distillers dried grain with solubles (DDGS), 5 samples of bakery by-products (BBP), 3 samples of corn, and 1 sample of wheat middlings (WM) were evaluated in broilers and laying hens. Diets containing each of the 14 feed ingredients were evaluated in 21 day-old broiler chickens. The DDGS and BBP containing diets were fed to 30-week-old laying hens, while corn and wheat middling were evaluated in 50-week-old laying hens. All the diets were semi-purified with each feed ingredient being the only source of amino acid (AA). To obtain SIAAD values, apparent ileal AA digestibility was corrected for basal ileal endogenous AA losses using values generated from broilers and laying hens fed a nitrogen-free diet. Ileal crude protein digestibility for the 5 DDGS samples was higher (P < 0.05) in broilers than in laying hens. Broilers had higher SIAAD for DDGS 2, 3, 4, and 5 while there was no difference for DDGS 1 except for 4 AA where broilers had higher (P < 0.05) SIAAD values. Standardized ileal AA digestibility values for broilers were higher (P < 0.05) for BBP 1 and 4. Ileal CP digestibility for corn 1 was higher (P < 0.05) for broilers compared to laying hens, and SIAAD values for the 16 AA (9 indispensable and 7 dispensable) evaluated in this study were higher (P < 0.05) in broilers. Broilers had higher (P < 0.05) SIAAD values for 4 (histidine, leucine, phenylalanine, and valine) and 6 (histidine, leucine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, and valine) indispensable and 3 (cysteine, glutamic acid, and proline) and 4 (cysteine, glutamic acid, proline, and serine) dispensable AA for corn 2 and corn 3, respectively. No difference in SIAAD between broilers and laying hens was observed for WM. Results from this study confirm that high variability in digestibility exists between different samples of DDGS. Differences in SIAAD between broilers and laying hens were observed in some samples of DDGS and BBP.
S. A. Adedokun; P. Jaynes; R. L. Payne; T. J. Applegate. Standardized Ileal Amino Acid Digestibility of Corn, Corn Distillers’ Dried Grains with Solubles, Wheat Middlings, and Bakery By-Products in Broilers and Laying Hens. Poultry Science 2015, 94, 2480 -2487.
AMA StyleS. A. Adedokun, P. Jaynes, R. L. Payne, T. J. Applegate. Standardized Ileal Amino Acid Digestibility of Corn, Corn Distillers’ Dried Grains with Solubles, Wheat Middlings, and Bakery By-Products in Broilers and Laying Hens. Poultry Science. 2015; 94 (10):2480-2487.
Chicago/Turabian StyleS. A. Adedokun; P. Jaynes; R. L. Payne; T. J. Applegate. 2015. "Standardized Ileal Amino Acid Digestibility of Corn, Corn Distillers’ Dried Grains with Solubles, Wheat Middlings, and Bakery By-Products in Broilers and Laying Hens." Poultry Science 94, no. 10: 2480-2487.
A study was conducted to establish the response of Pekin ducks to dietary Met from 15 to 35 d age. Experimental diets were formulated to contain 0.35, 0.45, 0.55, 0.65, and 0.75% Met (0.30, 0.39, 0.45, 0.56, and 0.68% on an analyzed basis, respectively) and 0.3% cysteine (0.25, 0.27, 0.26, 0.26, and 0.28% on an analyzed basis, respectively). Each diet was fed to 10 pens of 55 ducks/pen. Carcass yields and feather growth were determined at 28 and 35 d. Results showed that feeding 0.30% Met (0.55% Met+Cys) significantly impaired ADG, feed-to-gain (F:G) ratio, breast meat yield, and feather growth in comparison to the other dietary treatments (P < 0.05). BW, ADG, F:G, carcass and breast meat weight and yield, breast skin and subcutaneous fat weight and yield, the fourth primary wing feather length, and feather coverage showed significant quadratic broken-line or quadratic polynomial response to increasing dietary Met (P < 0.05). From 15 to 28 d age, the optimal Met requirement for the BW, breast meat yield, and the fourth primary wing feather length were 0.510, 0.445, and 0.404%, respectively, based on quadratic broken-line model, and correspondingly were 0.606, 0.576, and 0.559% by quadratic regression. For ducks from 15 to 35 d age, the optimal Met requirement for BW, breast meat yield, and feather coverage were 0.468, 0.408, and 0.484%, respectively, by quadratic broken-line model, and 0.605, 0.564, and 0.612%, by quadratic regression, respectively.
Q. F. Zeng; Q. Zhang; X. Chen; A. Doster; R. Murdoch; M. Makagon; A. Gardner; T. J. Applegate. Effect of dietary methionine content on growth performance, carcass traits, and feather growth of Pekin duck from 15 to 35 days of age. Poultry Science 2015, 94, 1592 -1599.
AMA StyleQ. F. Zeng, Q. Zhang, X. Chen, A. Doster, R. Murdoch, M. Makagon, A. Gardner, T. J. Applegate. Effect of dietary methionine content on growth performance, carcass traits, and feather growth of Pekin duck from 15 to 35 days of age. Poultry Science. 2015; 94 (7):1592-1599.
Chicago/Turabian StyleQ. F. Zeng; Q. Zhang; X. Chen; A. Doster; R. Murdoch; M. Makagon; A. Gardner; T. J. Applegate. 2015. "Effect of dietary methionine content on growth performance, carcass traits, and feather growth of Pekin duck from 15 to 35 days of age." Poultry Science 94, no. 7: 1592-1599.
Coccidia are protozoal parasites which compromise mucosal integrity of the intestine, potentiating poultry morbidity. The host's Zn status influences the course of infection. Therefore, two experiments were designed to determine how supplemental Zn regimens impacted jejunal and caecal immune status and Zn transporter expression. Coccivac®-B was administered weekly at ten times the recommended dose as a mild coccidial challenge (10CV). Zn was provided through a basal diet, supplemental zinc sulfate (ZnSO4), or a supplemental 1:1 blend of ZnSO4 and Availa®-Zn (Blend). Mucosal jejunum (Expt 1) and caecal tonsils (Expt 2) were evaluated for intracellular Zn concentrations and phagocytic capacity. Messenger expression of Zn transporters ZnT5, ZnT7, Zip9 and Zip13 were investigated to determine Zn trafficking. With 10CV, phagocytic capacity was decreased in jejunal cells by 2 %. In the caecal tonsils, however, phagocytic capacity increased with challenge, with the magnitude of increase being more pronounced with higher dietary Zn (10CV × Zn interaction; P= 0·04). Intracellular Zn within caecal tonsils was found significantly reduced with 10CV (27 %, P= 0·0001). 10CV also resulted in an overall increase in the ratio of Zip:ZnT transporters. With the exception of Zip13 transporter expression, dietary Zn source had little impact on any of the measured cellular parameters. Thus, intestinal mucosal tissues had reductions in intracellular free Zn during coccidial challenge, which was coupled with an upregulation of measured Zip transporters. This suggests that under coccidial challenge, intestinal cells attempt to compensate for the drop in intracellular Zn.
Catalina Troche; Susan D. Eicher; Todd J. Applegate. The influence of dietary zinc source and coccidial vaccine exposure on intracellular zinc homeostasis and immune status in broiler chickens. British Journal of Nutrition 2015, 114, 202 -212.
AMA StyleCatalina Troche, Susan D. Eicher, Todd J. Applegate. The influence of dietary zinc source and coccidial vaccine exposure on intracellular zinc homeostasis and immune status in broiler chickens. British Journal of Nutrition. 2015; 114 (2):202-212.
Chicago/Turabian StyleCatalina Troche; Susan D. Eicher; Todd J. Applegate. 2015. "The influence of dietary zinc source and coccidial vaccine exposure on intracellular zinc homeostasis and immune status in broiler chickens." British Journal of Nutrition 114, no. 2: 202-212.
Extensive research over the last couple of decades has made it obvious that mycotoxins are commonly prevalent in majority of feed ingredients. A worldwide mycotoxin survey in 2013 revealed 81% of around 3,000 grain and feed samples analyzed had at least 1 mycotoxin, which was higher than the 10-year average (from 2004 to 2013) of 76% in a total of 25,944 samples. The considerable increase in the number of positive samples in 2013 may be due to the improvements in detection methods and their sensitivity. The recently developed liquid chromatography coupled to (tandem) mass spectrometry allows the inclusion of a high number of analytes and is the most selective, sensitive, and accurate of all the mycotoxin analytical methods. Mycotoxins can affect the animals either individually or additively in the presence of more than 1 mycotoxin, and may affect various organs such as gastrointestinal tract, liver, and immune system, essentially resulting in reduced productivity of the birds and mortality in extreme cases. While the use of mycotoxin binding agents has been a commonly used counteracting strategy, considering the great diversity in the chemical structures of mycotoxins, it is very obvious that there is no single method that can be used to deactivate mycotoxins in feed. Therefore, different strategies have to be combined in order to specifically target individual mycotoxins without impacting the quality of feed. Enzymatic or microbial detoxification, referred to as “biotransformation” or “biodetoxification,” utilizes microorganisms or purified enzymes thereof to catabolize the entire mycotoxin or transform or cleave it to less or non-toxic compounds. However, the awareness on the prevalence of mycotoxins, available modern techniques to analyze them, the effects of mycotoxicoses, and the recent developments in the ways to safely eliminate the mycotoxins from the feed are very minimal among the producers. This symposium review paper comprehensively discusses the above mentioned aspects.
G. R. Murugesan; D. R. Ledoux; K. Naehrer; Franz Berthiller; Todd Applegate; B. Grenier; T. D. Phillips; G. Schatzmayr. Prevalence and effects of mycotoxins on poultry health and performance, and recent development in mycotoxin counteracting strategies. Poultry Science 2015, 94, 1298 -1315.
AMA StyleG. R. Murugesan, D. R. Ledoux, K. Naehrer, Franz Berthiller, Todd Applegate, B. Grenier, T. D. Phillips, G. Schatzmayr. Prevalence and effects of mycotoxins on poultry health and performance, and recent development in mycotoxin counteracting strategies. Poultry Science. 2015; 94 (6):1298-1315.
Chicago/Turabian StyleG. R. Murugesan; D. R. Ledoux; K. Naehrer; Franz Berthiller; Todd Applegate; B. Grenier; T. D. Phillips; G. Schatzmayr. 2015. "Prevalence and effects of mycotoxins on poultry health and performance, and recent development in mycotoxin counteracting strategies." Poultry Science 94, no. 6: 1298-1315.
Usama Taha Mahmoud; Mootaz Ahmed Mohamed Abdel-Rahman; Madeha Hosni Ahmed Darwish; Todd Applegate; Heng-Wei Cheng. Behavioral changes and feathering score in heat stressed broiler chickens fed diets containing different levels of propolis. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 2015, 166, 98 -105.
AMA StyleUsama Taha Mahmoud, Mootaz Ahmed Mohamed Abdel-Rahman, Madeha Hosni Ahmed Darwish, Todd Applegate, Heng-Wei Cheng. Behavioral changes and feathering score in heat stressed broiler chickens fed diets containing different levels of propolis. Applied Animal Behaviour Science. 2015; 166 ():98-105.
Chicago/Turabian StyleUsama Taha Mahmoud; Mootaz Ahmed Mohamed Abdel-Rahman; Madeha Hosni Ahmed Darwish; Todd Applegate; Heng-Wei Cheng. 2015. "Behavioral changes and feathering score in heat stressed broiler chickens fed diets containing different levels of propolis." Applied Animal Behaviour Science 166, no. : 98-105.
In chickens, the effect of mycotoxins, especially fumonisins (FB), in the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) is not well documented. Thus, this study in broiler chicks determined the effects of consuming diets prepared with Fusarium verticillioides culture material containing FB on intestinal gene expression and on the sphinganine (Sa)/sphingosine (So) ratio (Sa/So; a biomarker of FB effect due to disruption of sphingolipid metabolism). Male broilers were assigned to 6 diets (6 cages/diet; 6 birds/cage) from hatch to 20 days containing 0.4, 5.6, 11.3, 17.5, 47.8, or 104.8 mg FB/kg diet. Exposure to FB altered the Sa/So ratio in all tissues analyzed, albeit to varying extents. Linear dose-responses were observed in the kidney, jejunum and cecum. The liver and the ileum were very sensitive and data fit a cubic and quadratic polynomial model, respectively. Gene expression in the small intestine revealed low but significant upregulations of cytokines involved in the pro-inflammatory, Th1/Th17 and Treg responses, especially at 10 days of age. Interestingly, the cecal tonsils exhibited a biphasic response. Unlike the sphingolipid analysis, the effects seen on gene expression were not dose dependent, even showing more effects when birds were exposed to 11.3 mg FB/kg. In conclusion, this is the first report on the disruption of the sphingolipid metabolism by FB in the GIT of poultry. Further studies are needed to reach conclusions on the biological meaning of the immunomodulation observed in the GIT, but the susceptibility of chickens to intestinal pathogens when exposed to FB, at doses lower than those that would cause overt clinical symptoms, should be addressed.
Bertrand Grenier; Heidi E. Schwartz-Zimmermann; Sylvia Caha; Wulf Dieter Moll; Gerd Schatzmayr; Todd J. Applegate. Dose-Dependent Effects on Sphingoid Bases and Cytokines in Chickens Fed Diets Prepared with Fusarium Verticillioides Culture Material Containing Fumonisins. Toxins 2015, 7, 1253 -1272.
AMA StyleBertrand Grenier, Heidi E. Schwartz-Zimmermann, Sylvia Caha, Wulf Dieter Moll, Gerd Schatzmayr, Todd J. Applegate. Dose-Dependent Effects on Sphingoid Bases and Cytokines in Chickens Fed Diets Prepared with Fusarium Verticillioides Culture Material Containing Fumonisins. Toxins. 2015; 7 (4):1253-1272.
Chicago/Turabian StyleBertrand Grenier; Heidi E. Schwartz-Zimmermann; Sylvia Caha; Wulf Dieter Moll; Gerd Schatzmayr; Todd J. Applegate. 2015. "Dose-Dependent Effects on Sphingoid Bases and Cytokines in Chickens Fed Diets Prepared with Fusarium Verticillioides Culture Material Containing Fumonisins." Toxins 7, no. 4: 1253-1272.
A study was conducted to determine the influence of dietary energy and protein concentrations on growth performance and carcass traits of Pekin ducks from 15 to 35 d of age. In experiment 1, 14-d-old ducks were randomly assigned to 3 dietary metabolizable energy (11.8, 12.8, and 13.8 MJ/kg) and 3 crude protein concentrations (15, 17, and 19%) in a 3 × 3 factorial arrangement (6 replicate pens; 66 ducks/pen). Carcass characteristics were evaluated on d 28, 32, and 35. In Experiment 2, 15-d-old ducks (6 replicate cages; 6 ducks/cage) were randomly allotted to the 9 diets that were remixed with 0.5% chromic oxide. Excreta were collected from d 17 to 19, and ileal digesta was collected on d 19 to determine AMEn and amino acid digestibility. In Experiment 1, there were interactions (P < 0.05) between dietary metabolizable energy and crude protein (CP) on body weight (BW) gain and feed intake, wherein BW gain increased more to increasing dietary CP as dietary metabolizable energy increased. However, feed intake was only influenced by dietary crude protein at 11.8 MJ ME/kg and not 12.8 or 13.8 MJ/kg. As dietary CP increased from 15 to 19%, breast meat yield increased by 10.8% on d 35 (P < 0.01). Conversely, increasing metabolizable energy from 11.8 to 13.8 MJ/kg increased dressing percentage, breast skin, and subcutaneous fat, but decreased breast meat yield (% but not weight) on d 35 (P < 0.01). In Experiment 2, the determined AMEn for diets formulated to contain 11.8, 12.8, or 13.8 MJ ME/kg were 11.66, 12.68, and 13.75 MJ/kg, respectively; determined standardized ileal digestible Lys was 0.95, 1.00, and 1.21% for diets formulated to contain 15, 17, or 19% crude protein, respectively. The best body weight gain and feed conversion ratio was obtained when ducks were fed a high dietary AMEn (13.75 MJ/kg) and high CP (19%, 1.21% SID Lys). These results provide a framework for subsequent modeling of amino acid and energy inputs and the corresponding outputs of growth performance and carcass components.
Q. F. Zeng; P. Cherry; A. Doster; R. Murdoch; O. Adeola; T. J. Applegate. Effect of dietary energy and protein content on growth and carcass traits of Pekin ducks. Poultry Science 2015, 94, 384 -394.
AMA StyleQ. F. Zeng, P. Cherry, A. Doster, R. Murdoch, O. Adeola, T. J. Applegate. Effect of dietary energy and protein content on growth and carcass traits of Pekin ducks. Poultry Science. 2015; 94 (3):384-394.
Chicago/Turabian StyleQ. F. Zeng; P. Cherry; A. Doster; R. Murdoch; O. Adeola; T. J. Applegate. 2015. "Effect of dietary energy and protein content on growth and carcass traits of Pekin ducks." Poultry Science 94, no. 3: 384-394.
Intestinal mucin 2 (MUC2), a major gel-forming mucin, represents a primary barrier component of mucus layers and a target site for secretory IgA. Polymeric Ig receptor (pIgR) expressed on the basolateral surface of epithelium is used to transport polymeric IgA from the lamina propria into luminal mucins to establish the first lines of intestinal defense. To determine the spatio-temporal expression of MUC2, IgA, and pIgR in broiler chickens and Pekin ducks, intestinal tissues (n = 6/age) were dissected from late embryonic days up to 21 d posthatch. In the intestinal tissues, MUC2 was expressed with a rapid increase at hatching, followed by steady expression through 21 d posthatch both in chickens and ducks. IgA expression was low during the first week following hatching for both species. From the second week posthatch, IgA was rapidly expressed in the chickens, arriving at steady expression in the third week after hatching. However, in ducks, IgA expression during the 2 to 3 wk posthatch period was relatively slow. The expression of pIgR was greatly increased after hatching for both species, but its expression in ducks was relatively delayed. In addition, intestinal pIgR expression was highly correlated with MUC2 and IgA expressions in chickens but just moderately correlated in ducks. The relatively slow and late expression of IgA and pIgR as well as their moderate correlation may or may not account for the susceptibility of ducklings to mucosal pathogens at a young age.
Qian Zhang; Susan D. Eicher; Todd J. Applegate. Development of intestinal mucin 2, IgA, and polymeric Ig receptor expressions in broiler chickens and Pekin ducks. Poultry Science 2015, 94, 172 -180.
AMA StyleQian Zhang, Susan D. Eicher, Todd J. Applegate. Development of intestinal mucin 2, IgA, and polymeric Ig receptor expressions in broiler chickens and Pekin ducks. Poultry Science. 2015; 94 (2):172-180.
Chicago/Turabian StyleQian Zhang; Susan D. Eicher; Todd J. Applegate. 2015. "Development of intestinal mucin 2, IgA, and polymeric Ig receptor expressions in broiler chickens and Pekin ducks." Poultry Science 94, no. 2: 172-180.