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Dr. Sina Shahab
Cardiff University

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0 Transaction Costs
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Review
Published: 20 July 2021 in Sustainability
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Urban planning and design can impact mental health, but it is unclear how ever-growing and changing cities can sustain the psychological wellbeing of vulnerable groups, who are among the most mentally sensitive to spatial inequalities. This systematic review synthesised quantitative and qualitative studies on urban design interventions and their impact on wellbeing in vulnerable groups. Using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, we searched five online databases from inception to May 2020. A total of 10 papers were included. We found mixed evidence of benefits for wellbeing linked to urban regeneration projects or focused interventions (green spaces, transport, security). Interventions that were centred around participation, sustainable living, and quality of design (e.g., perceived sense of safety) were associated with increased residential satisfaction and wellbeing, particularly among low-income communities and women. Risk of bias was low to medium, but there was high methodological heterogeneity; studies were mainly from Western countries, and none of the included studies investigated the experiences of people with disabilities, migrants, or racial minorities. This review highlights the importance of inclusive and sustainable design interventions to create happy places for all strata of society, although further investigation is warranted.

ACS Style

Marica Cassarino; Sina Shahab; Sara Biscaya. Envisioning Happy Places for All: A Systematic Review of the Impact of Transformations in the Urban Environment on the Wellbeing of Vulnerable Groups. Sustainability 2021, 13, 8086 .

AMA Style

Marica Cassarino, Sina Shahab, Sara Biscaya. Envisioning Happy Places for All: A Systematic Review of the Impact of Transformations in the Urban Environment on the Wellbeing of Vulnerable Groups. Sustainability. 2021; 13 (14):8086.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Marica Cassarino; Sina Shahab; Sara Biscaya. 2021. "Envisioning Happy Places for All: A Systematic Review of the Impact of Transformations in the Urban Environment on the Wellbeing of Vulnerable Groups." Sustainability 13, no. 14: 8086.

Journal article
Published: 08 June 2021 in Cities
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E-Participation has been employed by many planning authorities across the world to facilitate the engagement of people in decision-making processes. Previous studies on e-participation have shown that this form of participation can increase the level of flexibility and inclusiveness of public engagements, make government interventions more responsive to citizens' needs, and increase government accountability. While there is a growing use of e-participation in the planning systems of developed countries, its application in developing countries has remained very limited. This paper explores the barriers to employing e-participation in the context of a developing country's planning system, using Iran as a case study. We have conducted interviews with different planning actors, including both public- and private-sector planners, to investigate what they perceive as such barriers. The results of this study show that the primary barriers to e-participation in Iran are attitudes towards participation, the structure and culture of the planning system, and staff capacity to engage the public through e-participation. The paper concludes with a series of recommendations regarding how these barriers can be overcome.

ACS Style

Sina Shahab; Baran Bagheri; Ruth Potts. Barriers to employing e-participation in the Iranian planning system. Cities 2021, 116, 103281 .

AMA Style

Sina Shahab, Baran Bagheri, Ruth Potts. Barriers to employing e-participation in the Iranian planning system. Cities. 2021; 116 ():103281.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Sina Shahab; Baran Bagheri; Ruth Potts. 2021. "Barriers to employing e-participation in the Iranian planning system." Cities 116, no. : 103281.

Journal article
Published: 27 April 2021 in Sustainability
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The development of the self and custom housebuilding sector can work towards increasing the supply of housing and alleviate some of the strain on the housing market in England. Although it is not a solution for everyone, improving self and custom housebuilding can add diversity to the market, increase housing affordability, and produce sustainable homes. This has been recognised by the UK Government, which has introduced legislation which aims to assist self and custom builders on the journey to building their own home. The goals of the legislation are to ensure every local authority in England keeps a register of individuals who want to build their own home, to consider this register when carrying out other planning functions, and to grant sufficient planning permissions for those on the register. This paper evaluates the ‘self-build and custom housebuilding registers’ from the perspective of transaction costs and perceived effectiveness. This is achieved through semi-structured interviews with local authority planners, private-sector planners, property developers, and national bodies. The findings of this study identify that the primary transaction costs occur in the eligibility tests stage of the register application and relate to the uncertainty felt by applicants post application. The paper concludes that these could be rectified by implementing a more consistent and fair system. The perceived effectiveness of the register varies considerably. The paper determines that the policy requires significant change in order to meet the goals it set out to achieve, which includes model Supplementary Planning Guidance documents and a robust support system for applicants.

ACS Style

Grace Sadler; Sina Shahab. Self-Build and Custom Housebuilding Registers in England: A Transaction-Cost and Effectiveness Analysis. Sustainability 2021, 13, 4912 .

AMA Style

Grace Sadler, Sina Shahab. Self-Build and Custom Housebuilding Registers in England: A Transaction-Cost and Effectiveness Analysis. Sustainability. 2021; 13 (9):4912.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Grace Sadler; Sina Shahab. 2021. "Self-Build and Custom Housebuilding Registers in England: A Transaction-Cost and Effectiveness Analysis." Sustainability 13, no. 9: 4912.

Article
Published: 19 April 2021 in Behavioural Public Policy
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Behavioral scientists have begun to research ‘sludge,’ excessive frictions that make it harder for people to do what they want to do. Friction is also an important concept in transaction-cost economics. Nevertheless, sludge has been discussed without explicit referral to transaction costs. Several questions arise from this observation. Is the analogy to friction used differently in both literatures? If so, what are the key differences? If not, should we develop the concept of sludge when the well-established literature on transaction costs already exists? This conceptual article shows that sludge and transaction costs are related, but distinct, concepts, and that the literature on sludge can benefit from incorporating elements from transaction-cost research. For example, we suggest defining sludge as aspects of the choice architecture that lead to the experience of costs, organize sludges using a typology inspired by the transaction-cost literature, highlight specificity, uncertainty, and frequency as important determinants of the ‘sludginess’ of choice architecture, and show that sludge audits can be conducted using methods developed in the transaction-cost literature.

ACS Style

Sina Shahab; Leonhard K. Lades. Sludge and transaction costs. Behavioural Public Policy 2021, 1 -22.

AMA Style

Sina Shahab, Leonhard K. Lades. Sludge and transaction costs. Behavioural Public Policy. 2021; ():1-22.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Sina Shahab; Leonhard K. Lades. 2021. "Sludge and transaction costs." Behavioural Public Policy , no. : 1-22.

Journal article
Published: 16 January 2021 in Urban Science
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This paper seeks to evaluate how successful national policy interventions have been at addressing land barriers to self-build and custom housebuilding when applied by Local Planning Authorities (LPAs) across the South West of England. A longitudinal triangulated mixed method approach was undertaken to comprehensively interrogate the research objective. This comprised submitting a Freedom of Information (FOI) request to each LPA within the study area; an assessment of the most recently produced Strategic Housing Market Assessments (SHMAs); deriving alternative demand estimates using national data as a proxy; and alternate estimates of supply calculated using BuildStore and The Land Bank Partnership plot search websites. The findings of the study revealed that LPA Registers can only be viewed as a minimum assessment of demand for self-build and custom housebuilding and the effectiveness of LPAs in classifying suitable development permissions for self-build and custom housebuilding was highly dependent on the mechanisms used to identify permissions.

ACS Style

Annie Hamilton Gingell; Sina Shahab. An Analysis of Self-Build and Custom Housebuilding in the South West of England. Urban Science 2021, 5, 9 .

AMA Style

Annie Hamilton Gingell, Sina Shahab. An Analysis of Self-Build and Custom Housebuilding in the South West of England. Urban Science. 2021; 5 (1):9.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Annie Hamilton Gingell; Sina Shahab. 2021. "An Analysis of Self-Build and Custom Housebuilding in the South West of England." Urban Science 5, no. 1: 9.

Journal article
Published: 01 January 2021 in Town Planning Review
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ACS Style

Negar Ahmadpoor; Sina Shahab. Urban form: Realising the value of green space: a planners’ perspective on the COVID-19 pandemic. Town Planning Review 2021, 92, 49 -55.

AMA Style

Negar Ahmadpoor, Sina Shahab. Urban form: Realising the value of green space: a planners’ perspective on the COVID-19 pandemic. Town Planning Review. 2021; 92 (1):49-55.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Negar Ahmadpoor; Sina Shahab. 2021. "Urban form: Realising the value of green space: a planners’ perspective on the COVID-19 pandemic." Town Planning Review 92, no. 1: 49-55.

Journal article
Published: 01 October 2020 in Land Use Policy
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Housing development is a lengthy and multi-step process; starting from the initial stages of a planning permission proposal to when a proposal is realised on-site. Each stage seemingly impacts how developments are delivered; however, research is limited into why quality of development has been seen to weaken in the post planning-decision stage (i.e. the stage after a planning permission is granted). This paper uses a case study of Cardiff to explore whether the key stages of the UK development management process could be improved to influence the delivery of high-quality housing developments. Using semi-structured interviews, this paper investigates the perceptions of planning professionals towards the requirement and applicability of improved methods, covering the following issues: a) the role of key actors in influencing outcomes during the development management process; b) the factors hindering implementation of high-quality housing developments; and c) how involved actors can improve the delivery of housing developments. The findings of the paper show that involved actors principally perceive inadequate local authority resource, limited enforcement powers, and a lack of on-site monitoring to be key hinderances in ensuring developer compliance, which to an extent, has a bearing on the implementation of high-quality developments. Furthermore, a difference in attitudes and knowledge towards development aspirations is uncovered, which reveals to have a considerable influence on the outcome of development quality. However, where resource may be available, some mechanisms are proposed by planning professionals as potential key factors in improving the post planning-decision process.

ACS Style

Daniella Dickinson; Sina Shahab. Post planning-decision process: Ensuring the delivery of high-quality developments in Cardiff. Land Use Policy 2020, 100, 105114 .

AMA Style

Daniella Dickinson, Sina Shahab. Post planning-decision process: Ensuring the delivery of high-quality developments in Cardiff. Land Use Policy. 2020; 100 ():105114.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Daniella Dickinson; Sina Shahab. 2020. "Post planning-decision process: Ensuring the delivery of high-quality developments in Cardiff." Land Use Policy 100, no. : 105114.

Articles
Published: 10 September 2020 in European Planning Studies
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How do municipalities strategically use land policy to develop land for housing? The development of housing is a challenge for many European countries, though the scale and time of it differs. Issues are not always about the absolute number of houses that need to be supplied in a country. The distribution and quality of houses affect the demand for housing. Land policy determines where and how future developments take place, and as a result, it has a considerable impact on both supply and demand of housing. Municipalities use different strategies of land policy to pursue housing goals. This paper aims to explore the rationalities underpinning such strategies of land policy. Therefore, a theory on pluralism – Cultural Theory – is employed to understand municipal strategies in different contexts, i.e. Germany (Ruhr region), Belgium (Flanders), and Netherlands. Applying Cultural Theory to land policy results in four ideal-typical strategies of active, passive, reactive, and protective land policies. Despite the fact that the decisions of municipalities are made within (or constrained by) their institutional environments (i.e. national/regional planning systems, development cultures, etc.), we found that there are key similarities between the strategies of the studied municipalities regardless of their different institutional environments.

ACS Style

Sina Shahab; Thomas Hartmann; Arend Jonkman. Strategies of municipal land policies: housing development in Germany, Belgium, and Netherlands. European Planning Studies 2020, 29, 1132 -1150.

AMA Style

Sina Shahab, Thomas Hartmann, Arend Jonkman. Strategies of municipal land policies: housing development in Germany, Belgium, and Netherlands. European Planning Studies. 2020; 29 (6):1132-1150.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Sina Shahab; Thomas Hartmann; Arend Jonkman. 2020. "Strategies of municipal land policies: housing development in Germany, Belgium, and Netherlands." European Planning Studies 29, no. 6: 1132-1150.

Journal article
Published: 25 August 2020 in Energy Policy
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Home-heating energy-poverty risk presents both challenge and opportunity for policymakers, businesses and communities. Effective measurement and management of this risk requires an evidence base that accounts for characteristics of the householder, building, and heating system. A composite index utilising 10 indicators refined to Small Area level is created to deliver spatially refined analysis of home-heating energy-poverty risk. The index is used to assess home-heating energy-poverty risk across 18,641 Small Area clusters in Ireland. This risk index is a scalable and internationally transferrable methodology that can be extended to cover other energy uses. Importantly the index is also dynamic and offers the capacity to analyse changes in energy-poverty risk associated with specific policy intervention proposals, including major contemporary environmental policy transitions such as residential fabric retrofit, residential heating system changes, energy price changes and carbon taxation. The application of the index to the Irish case affords refined insight into the impact and incidence of various market, technology and policy driven interventions such as fuel price changes, retrofit strategies and carbon tax increases. Risk and impacts vary geographically, and this index is designed to inform targeted policy interventions to mitigate home heating energy-poverty risk and thereby support ambitions for a ‘just transition’.

ACS Style

J. Andrew Kelly; J. Peter Clinch; L. Kelleher; Sina Shahab. Enabling a just transition: A composite indicator for assessing home-heating energy-poverty risk and the impact of environmental policy measures. Energy Policy 2020, 146, 111791 .

AMA Style

J. Andrew Kelly, J. Peter Clinch, L. Kelleher, Sina Shahab. Enabling a just transition: A composite indicator for assessing home-heating energy-poverty risk and the impact of environmental policy measures. Energy Policy. 2020; 146 ():111791.

Chicago/Turabian Style

J. Andrew Kelly; J. Peter Clinch; L. Kelleher; Sina Shahab. 2020. "Enabling a just transition: A composite indicator for assessing home-heating energy-poverty risk and the impact of environmental policy measures." Energy Policy 146, no. : 111791.

Journal article
Published: 07 May 2020 in Urban Science
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Urban villages play an important role in providing affordable housing to urban migrants in Chinese cities. They are considered as supplementary to the dual rural-urban system in China. Of central importance to studying urban villages is how the morphology of these informal settlements affects urban life. It is essential for urban planners and designers to examine the morphology of urban villages. This paper, therefore, investigates the morphology of urban villages using the case study of Dayuan Village in Guangzhou, China. The morphology of this urban village is tested against four main elements of urban morphology: urban density, accessibility, functional mix, and urban interface. Our results revealed that the type of street within the urban village has considerable influence on accessibility, functional mix, and urban interface. Regarding urban density, our results show that buildings’ height is not influenced by the centrality of buildings nor land value; however, it is likely that it is affected by planning agreements between the village committee and the local government. Land coverage does not comply with the planning regulation for residential districts. Regarding accessibility analysis, the number of entrances to streets is influenced by the type of street under analysis. The distribution of different types of functional mix is also affected by the type of street within the urban village. The buildings with a mix of ‘live/visit’ are concentrated along the formal streets and primary inner streets. The mono-functional use of ‘live’ and the bi-functional mix of ‘live/work’ are mostly located in the secondary inner streets. Regarding urban interface, our results demonstrate that the formal streets have an interface with considerable porosity, and that this can contribute to the livelihood of the immediate area.

ACS Style

Yuan Gao; Sina Shahab; Negar Ahmadpoor. Morphology of Urban Villages in China: A Case Study of Dayuan Village in Guangzhou. Urban Science 2020, 4, 23 .

AMA Style

Yuan Gao, Sina Shahab, Negar Ahmadpoor. Morphology of Urban Villages in China: A Case Study of Dayuan Village in Guangzhou. Urban Science. 2020; 4 (2):23.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Yuan Gao; Sina Shahab; Negar Ahmadpoor. 2020. "Morphology of Urban Villages in China: A Case Study of Dayuan Village in Guangzhou." Urban Science 4, no. 2: 23.

Research article
Published: 30 April 2020 in Planning Theory
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An increasing number of planners have explored the implication of Coase theorem for planning theory and practice. As there are often a large and dispersed number of actors involved in planning issues, the application of ‘Pure’ Coasian solutions has proved to be limited. However, some studies argue that when the conditions for a ‘Pure’ Coasian solution do not exist, ‘Impure’ Coasian solutions may still be achievable. This article examines how, when conditions of ‘Impure’ Coasian solutions are available, local authorities in Switzerland use land improvement syndicates as a policy instrument in order to achieve negotiated solutions in relation to development processes involving multiple landowners. With a syndicate in the commune of Cheseaux as an illustrative example, the article analyses how this policy instrument has been utilised to reduce transaction costs, correct information asymmetries and clarify property rights. The focus has been on an interpretation of the Coasian theorem that identifies attempts to reduce transaction costs and clarify property rights as the main roles of governments or local authorities.

ACS Style

Sina Shahab; François-Xavier Viallon. Swiss land improvement syndicates: ‘Impure’ Coasian solutions? Planning Theory 2020, 20, 44 -62.

AMA Style

Sina Shahab, François-Xavier Viallon. Swiss land improvement syndicates: ‘Impure’ Coasian solutions? Planning Theory. 2020; 20 (1):44-62.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Sina Shahab; François-Xavier Viallon. 2020. "Swiss land improvement syndicates: ‘Impure’ Coasian solutions?" Planning Theory 20, no. 1: 44-62.

Journal article
Published: 01 January 2020 in Current Urban Studies
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This paper focuses on how the accessibility of small airports affects the regional growth in the UK. Three airports that have less than two million passengers annually, are used for this study: Bournemouth, Cardiff International and London Southend Airport. The purpose of this study is threefold: 1) to investigate how the size of an airport influences growth and provides planning authorities support for permitting development around the airport, 2) to examine the impact that improving accessibility has on smaller airports, and 3) to analyse how regional development plans consider airports when airport developments occur. To this end, secondary data was used to analyse the current growth patterns linking economic indicators to airport use. Evaluating the accessibility of each small airport with the transport network by using a variety of databases and navigation software. Overall conclusions of this study show that the size of an airport is not as significant as the stability of the airports growth in influencing economic growth. Accessibility was found to improve regional growth around the airport and that the road network provided the best access due to the location of the case-study airports. Regional development plans considered airports as a gateway to drive economic growth with specific industries being supported. However, there is concern around airports for their development into greenbelts due to “exceptional circumstances” by the National Planning Policy Framework. Provision of independent development plans related solely to airports reduces the decision duration by local authorities.

ACS Style

Emma Ralphs; Sina Shahab; Negar Ahmadpoor. Access to Small Airports and the Impact on Regional Growth in the UK. Current Urban Studies 2020, 08, 24 -56.

AMA Style

Emma Ralphs, Sina Shahab, Negar Ahmadpoor. Access to Small Airports and the Impact on Regional Growth in the UK. Current Urban Studies. 2020; 08 (01):24-56.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Emma Ralphs; Sina Shahab; Negar Ahmadpoor. 2020. "Access to Small Airports and the Impact on Regional Growth in the UK." Current Urban Studies 08, no. 01: 24-56.

Original article
Published: 04 December 2019 in Growth and Change
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Transfer of development rights (TDR) programs are introduced as an alternative institutional innovation to the traditional regulatory instruments for land development. They meet the demand for development and conservation while balancing the conflicts between public and private interests with minimal use of public funds. Most TDR literature is about nature conservation and there is little focus on the complicated process and diverse stakeholders’ interests of urban land use in dealing with built heritage conservation. Previous studies show that the success of TDR programs depends on various elements, especially policy design and implementation approaches. The design and implementation of TDR programs involves transaction costs that can reduce the efficiency and effectiveness of these programs. This paper aims at developing a framework for analyzing TDR programs. This proposed framework not only takes transactions costs into account, but also provides a basis for decision makers to decipher the process of informal TDR. Using Hong Kong as a case study, three TDR implementation modes are selected to examine how different informal institutional arrangements have resulted in specific transaction costs in practice and hindered TDR projects. Our findings, which are informed by transactions costs economics, provide practical insights in order to improving the efficiency and effectiveness of TDR programs, particularly in informal contexts.

ACS Style

Jun Hou; Dazhi Gu; Sina Shahab; Edwin Hon‐Wan Chan. Implementation analysis of transfer of development rights for conserving privately owned built heritage in Hong Kong: A transactions costs perspective. Growth and Change 2019, 51, 530 -550.

AMA Style

Jun Hou, Dazhi Gu, Sina Shahab, Edwin Hon‐Wan Chan. Implementation analysis of transfer of development rights for conserving privately owned built heritage in Hong Kong: A transactions costs perspective. Growth and Change. 2019; 51 (1):530-550.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Jun Hou; Dazhi Gu; Sina Shahab; Edwin Hon‐Wan Chan. 2019. "Implementation analysis of transfer of development rights for conserving privately owned built heritage in Hong Kong: A transactions costs perspective." Growth and Change 51, no. 1: 530-550.

Original article
Published: 07 November 2019 in Growth and Change
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Tradable permit schemes (TPS) are market‐based policy instruments, which are claimed to be more statically and dynamically efficient in achieving their policy objectives compared to the traditional regulatory instruments. However, some researchers argue that the high level of transaction costs associated with these policy instruments might undermine their efficiency. This paper addresses this issue through exploring the use of Blockchain technology in order to lower transaction costs that arise from TPS transactions. More specifically, it identifies the benefits of using Blockchain smart contracts in implementing TPS that include: increasing the amount of relevant information available to interested actors thus reducing uncertainties; reducing the amount of irrelevant information available to interested actors thus decreasing complexities; correcting information asymmetries among the actors involved thus limiting opportunistic behaviours; lowering the need for the involvement of intermediaries thus decreasing direct monetary costs; and facilitating the linkage between buyers and sellers thus improving trading quality. These potential benefits can increase the efficiency of TPS by decreasing policy‐related transaction costs.

ACS Style

Sina Shahab; Zaheer Allam. Reducing transaction costs of tradable permit schemes using Blockchain smart contracts. Growth and Change 2019, 51, 302 -308.

AMA Style

Sina Shahab, Zaheer Allam. Reducing transaction costs of tradable permit schemes using Blockchain smart contracts. Growth and Change. 2019; 51 (1):302-308.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Sina Shahab; Zaheer Allam. 2019. "Reducing transaction costs of tradable permit schemes using Blockchain smart contracts." Growth and Change 51, no. 1: 302-308.

Journal article
Published: 01 September 2019 in Town Planning Review
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Land improvement syndicates (LIS) are a land-policy instrument that has been implemented in Switzerland to incorporate land readjustments, zoning changes and infrastructure provisions within a single instrument. These instruments address contentious situations, such as disagreements among landowners, inappropriate property subdivisions, problematic allocations of development rights, and the distribution of infrastructure provision costs. LIS redistribute added land values and costs of land development between landowners in a more equitable manner. While LIS have been in place for several decades, there have been limited studies on institutional aspects of these policy instruments, and particularly their associated transaction costs. In line with the transaction-cost economics theory, this paper considers the activities involved in the formation and execution of LIS as a series of transactions and discusses when and why transaction costs arise throughout the life cycle of the policy instrument. To this end, this paper uses an LIS case study in the commune of Cheseaux, Canton Vaud. The results of this paper show the variance of transaction costs across time, actor and activity. Activities such as preparation of the feasibility study and infrastructure provision are among those that appear to generate particularly considerable transaction costs. In addition to this, there is evidence of lengthy negotiations surrounding the existing and future land values and redistribution of development rights.

ACS Style

Sina Shahab; François-Xavier Viallon. A transaction-cost analysis of Swiss land improvement syndicates. Town Planning Review 2019, 90, 545 -565.

AMA Style

Sina Shahab, François-Xavier Viallon. A transaction-cost analysis of Swiss land improvement syndicates. Town Planning Review. 2019; 90 (5):545-565.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Sina Shahab; François-Xavier Viallon. 2019. "A transaction-cost analysis of Swiss land improvement syndicates." Town Planning Review 90, no. 5: 545-565.

Journal article
Published: 01 February 2019 in Ecological Economics
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ACS Style

Sina Shahab; J. Peter Clinch; Eoin O'Neill. An Analysis of the Factors Influencing Transaction Costs in Transferable Development Rights Programmes. Ecological Economics 2019, 156, 409 -419.

AMA Style

Sina Shahab, J. Peter Clinch, Eoin O'Neill. An Analysis of the Factors Influencing Transaction Costs in Transferable Development Rights Programmes. Ecological Economics. 2019; 156 ():409-419.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Sina Shahab; J. Peter Clinch; Eoin O'Neill. 2019. "An Analysis of the Factors Influencing Transaction Costs in Transferable Development Rights Programmes." Ecological Economics 156, no. : 409-419.

Review
Published: 01 January 2019 in Current Urban Studies
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Spatial cognition has become an increasingly important area of study since it represents a major type of human knowledge with considerable practical significance. The general assumption is that people’s spatial knowledge forms people’s spatial behaviour, such as navigation, in the environment. However, there are some critical issues within this area, including: how such knowledge is represented and organised, the mechanisms by which it is activated, and the elementary and higher-level cognitive processes that function upon the knowledge base to produce new knowledge as well as the factors that are influential on acquiring spatial knowledge. The theories regarding spatial knowledge acquisitions have attempted to address these issues. This paper discusses these issues by reviewing the literature. As such, the paper firstly provides the research background on spatial knowledge acquisition and the theories of spatial knowledge development. Secondly, the paper debates the main factors affecting acquiring and forming knowledge about the environment. In doing that, the effects of two main factors are discussed: 1) the means of spatial knowledge acquisition (direct experience, physical map, and mobile maps), and 2) the role of different properties of physical environment.

ACS Style

Negar Ahmadpoor; Sina Shahab. Spatial Knowledge Acquisition in the Process of Navigation: A Review. Current Urban Studies 2019, 07, 1 -19.

AMA Style

Negar Ahmadpoor, Sina Shahab. Spatial Knowledge Acquisition in the Process of Navigation: A Review. Current Urban Studies. 2019; 07 (01):1-19.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Negar Ahmadpoor; Sina Shahab. 2019. "Spatial Knowledge Acquisition in the Process of Navigation: A Review." Current Urban Studies 07, no. 01: 1-19.

Journal article
Published: 08 April 2018 in Habitat International
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Planners are required to evaluate planning policy instruments to develop a better understanding of how they can improve their policy design and implementation processes. Transferable Development Rights (TDR) programmes are one of the market-based policy instruments that have attracted considerable attention among planners and economists. Given that TDR programmes have been introduced as an alternative to traditional regulatory instruments in several jurisdictions on the basis that their implementation will result in better policy outcomes, evaluation of these alternative programmes is particularly important. Like all policy instruments, the activities concerned with the design and implementation of TDR programmes may involve significant transaction costs. These activities can be considered as a series of transactions from the perspective of Transaction Cost Economics (TCE). While transaction costs are expected to vary across the lifecycle of a policy instrument, up to now there have been no systematic research studies concerned with why, and how, such transaction costs occur and are distributed among parties involved in different phases of TDR programmes. In order to aid better design and implementation of TDR programmes, this paper analyses the effects of transaction costs throughout the life of four TDR programmes (Calvert, Montgomery, St. Mary's, and Charles Counties) in the US state of Maryland in order to gain a better understanding of the timing and distribution of such costs incurred by different parties involved.

ACS Style

Sina Shahab; J. Peter Clinch; Eoin O'Neill. Timing and distributional aspects of transaction costs in Transferable Development Rights programmes. Habitat International 2018, 75, 131 -138.

AMA Style

Sina Shahab, J. Peter Clinch, Eoin O'Neill. Timing and distributional aspects of transaction costs in Transferable Development Rights programmes. Habitat International. 2018; 75 ():131-138.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Sina Shahab; J. Peter Clinch; Eoin O'Neill. 2018. "Timing and distributional aspects of transaction costs in Transferable Development Rights programmes." Habitat International 75, no. : 131-138.

Journal article
Published: 02 January 2018 in Journal of the American Planning Association
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ACS Style

Sina Shahab; J. Peter Clinch; Eoin O'Neill. Estimates of Transaction Costs in Transfer of Development Rights Programs. Journal of the American Planning Association 2018, 84, 61 -75.

AMA Style

Sina Shahab, J. Peter Clinch, Eoin O'Neill. Estimates of Transaction Costs in Transfer of Development Rights Programs. Journal of the American Planning Association. 2018; 84 (1):61-75.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Sina Shahab; J. Peter Clinch; Eoin O'Neill. 2018. "Estimates of Transaction Costs in Transfer of Development Rights Programs." Journal of the American Planning Association 84, no. 1: 61-75.

Journal article
Published: 01 January 2018 in Land Use Policy
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ACS Style

Sina Shahab; J. Peter Clinch; Eoin O’Neill. Accounting for transaction costs in planning policy evaluation. Land Use Policy 2018, 70, 263 -272.

AMA Style

Sina Shahab, J. Peter Clinch, Eoin O’Neill. Accounting for transaction costs in planning policy evaluation. Land Use Policy. 2018; 70 ():263-272.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Sina Shahab; J. Peter Clinch; Eoin O’Neill. 2018. "Accounting for transaction costs in planning policy evaluation." Land Use Policy 70, no. : 263-272.