Infectious bronchitis (IB) and Newcastle disease (ND) are two important diseases of poultry and have remained a threat to the development of the poultry industry in many parts of the world. The immunology of avian has been well studied and numerous vaccines have been developed against the two viruses. Most of these vaccines are either inactivated vaccines or live attenuated vaccines. Inactivated vaccines induce weak cellular immune responses and require priming with live or other types of vaccines. Advanced technology has been used to produce several types of vaccines that can initiate prime immune responses. However, as a result of rapid genetic variations, the control of these two viral infections through vaccination has remained a challenge. Using various strategies such as combination of live attenuated and inactivated vaccines, development of IB/ND vaccines, use of DNA vaccines and transgenic plant vaccines, the problem is being surmounted. It is hoped that with increasing understanding of the immunological mechanisms in birds that are used in fighting these viruses, a more successful control of the diseases will be achieved. This will go a long way in contributing to global food security and the economic development of many developing countries, given the role of poultry in the attainment of these goals.

Honey has been used traditionally for ages to treat infectious diseases. These amazing properties of honey are complex as a result of the involvement of various bioactive compounds. Honey is becoming sustainable as a reputable and effective therapeutic agent to practitioners of conventional medicine and to the general public. Its beneficial role has been endorsed due to its antimicrobial, antiviral, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant activities as well as boosting of the immune system. Also, other medical conditions discussed here which can be treated with honey include but not limited to diarrhea, gastric ulcer, canine recurrent dermatitis, diabetics, tumor, and arthritis, and honey can also be used for skin disinfection and wound healing. Most of the known factors that give honey these properties include its acidity, high sugar, hydrogen peroxide, and other non-peroxide properties. Some factors may affect the therapeutic properties of honey such as exposure to heat and light.

In view of increasing reports of infections due to virulent Providencia species including cytolethal distending toxin ( cdt ) gene-positive strains, it is important to identify the reservoirs and transmission routes of such pathogenic strains. Raccoons considered to be a source of zoonotic pathogens were monitored for the presence of Providencia species in Japan and analyzed for cdt genes. Of 384 wild raccoon rectal swabs analyzed, 60% were positive for Providencia species, of which 20% carried cdt -genes. Among seven Providencia species isolated ( P. alcalifaciens, P. rustigianii, P. rettgeri, P. stuartii, P. heimbachae, P. vermicola, and P. huaxiensis ), cdt genes were distributed in P. alcalifcaiens (63%), P. rustigianii (16%), and novel in P. rettgeri (21%). Complete cdt gene clusters were identified in P. alcalifaciens and P. rustigianii strains, whereas P. rettgeri had intact cdtB but truncated cdtA and cdtC genes. Phylogenetic analyses showed divergent pulsotypes among the cdt gene-positive Providencia strains. Cytotoxicity assay revealed that P. alcalifaciens and P. rustigianii produced CDT more toxic to eukaryotic cells compared to human clinical strains, which were neutralized by anti-PaCdtB serum. As expected, the P. rettgeri strains with truncated cdt genes had no biological activity. Molecular analysis revealed that all the cdt genes were located on plasmids as determined by S1-nuclease pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (S1-PFGE) and Southern hybridization assay. Intriguingly, the cdtB gene in P. rustigianii strains was detected on dual plasmids. Notably, all the cdt gene-positive Providencia strains were found to carry plasmid-mediated T3SS-related genes. These results suggest that wild raccoons are possible reservoir of virulent Providencia strains in Japan. IMPORTANCE: Providencia species considered normal flora are occasionally associated with gastroenteritis in healthy humans. Cytolethal distending toxin (CDT), a bacterial virulence factor found in various Gram-negative bacteria and associated with gastroenteritis and extra-intestinal infection has also been reported in at least two Providencia species ( P. alcalifaciens and P. rustigianii ). Determination of the transmission routes of such virulent Providencia is crucial for the implementation of evidence-based control programs. In this study, we identified raccoons as the probable reservoir of the cdt gene-positive Providencia strains in Japan. Interestingly, CDTs produced by raccoon-derived Providencia strains exerted more toxic effects on the eukaryotic cells compared to the clinical Providencia strains. In addition, the identification of a novel cdt gene cluster in another species P. rettgeri isolated from raccoons suggests that Providencia may be categorized as an emerging zoonotic pathogen.

Introduction: Shigellosis is considered a veterinary and public health problem of major importance. Shigella is implicated in food poisoning and bloody diarrhoea in humans and is an important cause of various diseases of livestock resulting in high morbidity and mortality. Shigella spp. is spread by direct contact with an infected host, or by eating contaminated food or drinking contaminated water. A cross-sectional survey was conducted to determine the occurrence of Shigella in free range and intensively reared chickens from markets and poultry farms in Nsukka, Enugu State, Nigeria, and to determine their antibiogram. Materials and Methods: A total of 300 cloacal swabs from 150 free range and 150 intensively reared chickens, collected from 3 local markets and 3 farms respectively, were sampled. Shigella was isolated after passing the samples through pre-enrichment, selective enrichment and culture in a selective medium and identified using standard microbiological and biochemical methods. Antibiotic susceptibility test was performed by the disc diffusion method according to the CLSI method (Kirby-Bauer disk diffusion test) on Muller-Hinton agar. Results: Out of the 300 samples, 10 (3.3%) were positive for shigellae. The occurrence in free-range chickens was 6.7%, while none was isolated in intensively reared chickens (0% occurrence). The Shigella spp. isolated were sensitive to ciprofloxacin (100%), moderately sensitive to ofloxacin (70%), gentamicin (70%), nalidixic acid (60%), cotrimoxazole (60%) and tetracycline (70%), and resistant to amoxicillin (100%) and augmentin (100%). The MIC ranges for cotrimoxazole, ciprofloxacin, gentamicin, and tetracycline, were 8-32, 0.015-0.25, 0.5-2.0, and 2.0-64.0 µg/ml, respectively. The MBC values obtained for ciprofloxacin, gentamicin, and tetracycline were 0.015-8, 2.0-8.0, and 128.0-512.0 µg/ml, were, respectively. The Shigella spp. isolates were classified as multidrug resistant. The difference in susceptibility patterns of the isolates from different sources was not significant (p > 0.05). Conclusions: The findings of this study have shown that free-range chickens could serve as reservoirs/vehicles for the transmission of Shigella spp. in the study area.

Introduction: Salmonella infections remain a veterinary and public health problem of major importance. Rare Salmonella serovars, whose epidemiological and serological patterns are not well understood, are becoming increasingly common in Nigeria and other parts of the world. We report the isolation of Salmonella enterica serovars Wangata and Penarth, two serovars that had not been previously reported in chicken in Nigeria. Materials and Methods: A total of 300 chickens comprising of 150 intensively reared and 150 free range chickens, from selected farms and live bird markets, were sampled by cloacal swab using International Office of Epizootics (OIE) standards. Following standard bacteriological techniques, samples were pre-enriched in buffered peptone water, before transferring into Rappaport Vassiliadis medium and finally streaked onto Salmonella-Shigella agar (SSA). Salmonella spp. were identified biochemically and serotyped based on reaction with somatic (O), flagella (H), and capsular (Vi) antisera. Antibiotic susceptibility testing was performed following Kirby-Bauer (disk-diffusion) method. Results: Out of the 300 samples, 4% (n = 12) were positive for salmonellae. The isolates comprise of 6 isolates of S. enterica ser Wangata, 5 S. enterica ser Enteritidis and 1 S. enterica ser Penarth. All the rare serotypes S. Wangata and S. Penarth were isolated from free range chickens, while S. Enteritidis was isolated from both intensively reared and free range chickens. There was no difference in the sensitivity pattern between the rare serovars and serovar Enteritidis to the antibiotics tested. S. Penarth had a higher MIC to Cotrimoxazole, but lower MBC for gentamicin and tetracycline. Conclusions: Free range chickens could be vehicles for the transmission and/or reservoirs of the rare salmonellae serotypes in Nigeria. Any prophylactic program aimed at controlling these agents in poultry farms in Nigeria, must take into account the free range local chickens.