The current literature provides a body of evidence on C-Reactive Protein (CRP) and its potential role in inflammation. However, most pieces of evidence are sparse and controversial. This critical state-of-the-art monography provides all the crucial data on the potential biochemical properties of the protein, along with further evidence on its potential pathobiology, both for its pentameric and monomeric forms, including information for its ligands as well as the possible function of autoantibodies against the protein. Furthermore, the current evidence on its potential utility as a biomarker of various diseases is presented, of all cardiovascular, respiratory, hepatobiliary, gastrointestinal, pancreatic, renal, gynecological, andrological, dental, oral, otorhinolaryngological, ophthalmological, dermatological, musculoskeletal, neurological, mental, splenic, thyroid conditions, as well as infections, autoimmune-supposed conditions and neoplasms, including other possible factors that have been linked with elevated concentrations of that protein. Moreover, data on molecular diagnostics on CRP are discussed, and possible etiologies of false test results are highlighted. Additionally, this review evaluates all current pieces of evidence on CRP and systemic inflammation, and highlights future goals. Finally, a novel diagnostic algorithm to carefully assess the CRP level for a precise diagnosis of a medical condition is illustrated.

Introduction: A novel Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) was reported via nucleic acid identification in December, 2019. Accuracy of SARS-CoV-2 diagnostic assays has emerged as a major barrier to COVID-19 diagnosis, particularly in cases requiring urgent or emergent treatment. Areas covered: In this review, we explore the major reasons for false-positive and false-negative SARS-CoV-2 test results. How clinical characteristics, specific respiratory comorbidities and SARS-CoV-2 vaccination impact on existing diagnostic assays are highlighted. Different COVID-19 management algorithms based on each test and limitations are thoroughly presented. Expert opinion: The diagnostic accuracy and the capacity of every available assay, which need to be interpreted in the light of the background incidence of SARS-CoV-2 infection in the communities in which they are used, are essential in order to minimize the number of falsely tested cases. Automated testing platforms may enhance diagnostic accuracy by minimizing the potential for human error in assays’ performance. Prior immunization against SARS-CoV-2 impairs the utility of serologic testing of suspected COVID-19 cases. Future avenues of research to evaluate lung tissue innate immune responses hold promise as a target for research to optimize SARS-CoV-2 and future infections’ testing accuracy.

Medical biosensors have set the basis of medical diagnostics, and Artificial Intelligence (AI) has boosted diagnostics to a great extent. However, false results are evident in every method, so it is crucial to identify the reasons behind a possible false result in order to control its occurrence. This is the first critical state-of-the-art review article to discuss all the commonly used biosensor types and the reasons that can give rise to potential false results. Furthermore, AI is discussed in parallel with biosensors and their misdiagnoses, and again some reasons for possible false results are discussed. Finally, an expert opinion with further future perspectives is presented based on general expert insights, in order for some false diagnostic results of biosensors and AI biosensors to be surpassed.

The novel mRNA vaccinations against COVID-19 are gaining worldwide attention for their potential efficacy, as well as for the diagnosis of some post-vaccination-reported adverse reactions. In this state-of-the-art review article, we present the current evidence regarding mainly the diagnosis of spontaneous allergic reactions, the skin occurrences, the vascular, blood, endocrine and heart events, the respiratory reports, the gastrointestinal, hepatic and kidney events, the reproductive and pregnancy issues and the muscle events, as well as the ear, eye, neurologic and psychiatric events following mRNA vaccination against COVID-19. We further present some evidence regarding the mRNA strategies, we provide important information for side effects associated with the spike protein based LNP-mRNA vaccine and its adjuvants, as well as evidence for all the possible dangerous roles of the spike protein, and we discuss our expert opinion on the knowns and the unknowns towards the topic.

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has emerged as a potentially severe disease, especially for individuals presenting with certain underlying medical conditions. We analyzed the rates of comorbidities and symptoms to reveal the potential severity of the pandemic in Volos, one of the most air-polluted cities in Greece. Environmental and health-related predictors for SARS-CoV-2 infection were investigated. A web-based questionnaire was disseminated through social media in the first half of March 2021 during a five-month strict lockdown. Sociodemographic data, preexisting medical conditions, frequency of clinical symptoms, and COVID-19 information were recorded. The study population consisted of 2000 responders. Four-fifths of the participants reported comorbidities that could increase vulnerability to severe COVID-19. Respiratory symptoms were reported from the unemployed and from retirees, and cold-related symptoms were reported in the education sector and in undergraduates. Women and younger generations shaped social vulnerability to respiratory infections similar to the elderly. SARS-CoV-2 infection was reported in 3.7% of the study population. Common headache (OR 2; CI 1189–3013; p = 0.007) and prior pneumonia (OR 1.9; CI 1024–2898; p = 0.04) were significant predictors for susceptibility to SARS-CoV-2 infection. The importance of monitoring society through community-based questionnaires is highlighted, for predicting and preventing future widespread transmission of infectious diseases.

Coronavirus Disease 19 (COVID-19) diagnosis has been a major problem in most Emergency Departments (EDs) and other senior care facilities. The various clinical manifestations, and the several radio...