We demonstrate a pneumatically operated microfluidic device that can apply compressive stress of various magnitudes to multiple alginate–chondrocyte constructs simultaneously.

We show through calculations, simulations and experiments that the eddies often observed near sessile filter feeders are frequently due to the presence of nearby boundaries. We model the common filter feeder Vorticella, which is approximately 50 µm across and which feeds by removing bacteria from ocean or pond water that it draws towards itself. We use both an analytical stokeslet model and a Brinkman flow approximation that exploits the narrow-gap geometry to predict the size of the eddy caused by two parallel no-slip boundaries that represent the slides between which experimental observations are often made. We also use three-dimensional finite-element simulations to fully solve for the flow around a model Vorticella and analyse the influence of multiple nearby boundaries. Additionally, we track particles around live feeding Vorticella in order to determine the experimental flow field. Our models are in good agreement both with each other and with experiments. We also provide approximate equations to predict the experimental eddy sizes owing to boundaries both for the case of a filter feeder between two slides and for the case of a filter feeder attached to a perpendicular surface between two slides.

In this review, we introduce Vorticella as a model biological micromachine for microscale engineering systems. Vorticella has two motile organelles: the oral cilia of the zooid and the contractile spasmoneme in the stalk. The oral cilia beat periodically, generating a water flow that translates food particles toward the animal at speeds in the order of 0.1–1 mm/s. The ciliary flow of Vorticella has been characterized by experimental measurement and theoretical modeling, and tested for flow control and mixing in microfluidic systems. The spasmoneme contracts in a few milliseconds, coiling the stalk and moving the zooid at 15–90 mm/s. Because the spasmoneme generates tension in the order of 10–100 nN, powered by calcium ion binding, it serves as a model system for biomimetic actuators in microscale engineering systems. The spasmonemal contraction of Vorticella has been characterized by experimental measurement of its dynamics and energetics, and both live and extracted Vorticellae have been tested for moving microscale objects. We describe past work to elucidate the contraction mechanism of the spasmoneme, recognizing that past and continuing efforts will increase the possibilities of using the spasmoneme as a microscale actuator as well as leading towards bioinspired actuators mimicking the spasmoneme.

In this report, we demonstrate a microfluidic platform to control the stalk contraction and extension of Vorticella convallaria by changing concentration of Ca²⁺ with pneumatically-actuated elastomeric microvalves. Habitation, extraction and control of V. convallaria were carried out in a PDMS-based microfluidic device. By treating the cells with the permeant saponin, external actuation of cell-anchoring stalk between an extended and contracted state was achieved by cyclic exposure of the cells to a Ca²⁺ buffer (10⁻⁶ M) and a rinse buffer containing EGTA as a chelation agent. When solutions were switched, the stalk contracted and extended responding to the ambient Ca²⁺ concentration change. The length of the stalk changed between 20 and 60 μm, resulting in a working distance of about 40 μm.