Apple (Malus x domestica) fruit size is dependent on cell division and cell expansion, processes that are subsequently regulated by plant hormones such as auxins, gibberellins, and cytokinins. In this study, we investigated the role of cell division and cell expansion in apple growth and identified which of the two was more deterministic of final fruit size. Three cultivars of different sizes were selected, namely, “Twenty Ounce” (large-sized), “Royal Gala” (medium-sized), and “Crabapple” (small-sized). Gene expression and cell size analyses were conducted over the course of two consecutive seasons. The expression patterns of three classes of genes were markedly similar across all cultivars. Two cell division markers, namely MdCDKB2;2 and MdANT2, were discovered to be correlatively expressed, as both displayed initially high expression levels, which gradually declined from the early to late stages of the growth time course. For cell expansion markers, MdEXP3 was upregulated as the cells expanded, while MdARF106 was expressed in both the cell division and expansion stages. Meanwhile, the ripening-related gene MdACO1 was expectedly expressed only during the ending stages associated with ripening. Interestingly, the cell measurements taken regularly from each cultivar throughout the same experimental timespan showed that cell sizes were unaltered and remained constant from initial pollination at the zeroth Day After Pollination (DAP) to ripening at 120 Days After Full Bloom (DAFB).

Mangoes comes in different sizes and consumer are often favour those with bigger, fleshy mango. Many genes are plays an important role in determining the growth, final size and shapes of the mango. To further understand the roles of genes that play roles in fruit development, a de novo transcriptomic analysis was performed at two stages of fruit development; immature and ripening stage, using Illumina HiSeq 4000 platform with 30× sequencing coverage. A total of approximately 128 Gb of clean nucleotides was obtained from 130 Gb of raw nucletides sequenced from four fruit mesocarp of both time points. The raw and clean data were deposited into National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) Sequence Read Archive (SRA) database with accession number PRJNA803945.

Apple (Malus x domestica) fruit size is dependent on cell division and cell expansion, processes which are subsequently regulated by plant hormones such as auxins, gibberellins, and cytokinins. In this study, we investigated the role of cell division and cell expansion in apple growth and identified which of the two was more deterministic to final fruit size. Three cultivars of different sizes were selected, namely, ‘Twenty Ounce’ (large-sized), ‘Royal Gala’ (medium-sized), and ‘Crabapple’ (small-sized). Gene expression and cell size analyses were conducted over the course of two consecutive seasons. The expression patterns of three classes of genes were markedly similar across all cultivars. Two cell division markers, namely, MdCDKB2;2 and MdANT2, were discovered to be correlatively expressed as both displayed initially high expression levels, which gradually declined from the early to late stages of growth time course. For cell expansion markers, MdEXP3 was upregulated as the cells expanded, while MdARF106 was expressed in both the cell division and expansion stages. Meanwhile, the ripening related gene MdACO1 was expectedly expressed only during the ending stages associated with ripening. Interestingly, the cell measurements taken regularly from each cultivar throughout the same eperimental timespan showed that cell sizes were unaltered and remained constant from initial pollination at the zeroth Days After Pollination (DAP), to ripening at 120 Days After Full Bloom (DAFB).

Fruits are sold by weight, and hence, fruit size is a central indicator of fruit yield and quality. In horticultural industries, fruit growers and researchers continually search for and improve cultivation methods to enhance fruit size. By providing a fundamental understanding of how fruit size is regulated in plants, the process of cell number production followed by the increase of cell size has been widely studied. Molecular and cellular approaches provide direction to both scientists and breeders in fruit quality enhancement. This mini-review discussed the interplay among major plant hormones in regulating cell number production and cell size in horticultural plants. We focused on hormones that are mainly involved in determining cell proliferation and cell size and on their interaction during genetic regulation and their signaling pathways, which in turn, influence final fruit size. We also deliberated the current findings around this research niche at cellular and molecular levels. This will ultimately assist breeders in improving the fruit quality, and yield and increase profit.

During the last three decades, plant cell, tissue, and organ culture have developed rapidly and become a major biotechnology tool in agriculture, horticulture, forestry, and industry. Many problems in conventional breeding techniques were solved via tissue culture techniques. Plant tissue culture technique permits the growing plants in test tube or closed container in vitro under controlled environment. This technique is devoted to solve two problems: 1) To keep the plant cells free from microbes. 2) To grow the desired plants by providing suitable nutrient medium and other environmental conditions. In this chapter, a review around plant tissue culture techniques that have been reported on oil palm breeding programme will be discussed. It is including the laboratory techniques, advantages and disadvantages of the technique, the problems to produce good and prolific oil palm tissue culture clones and mitigation measures that have been reported to overcome the problems. As a conclusion, this chapter reviews tissue culture techniques that could be used to propagate oil palm clones.

Fruit development, following pollination, involves a cell division stage, followed by cell expansion . A major challenges to study each individual stages is the limitations imposed by analyses of fruit development on the plant. Rapid growing cell culture systems that differentiate could be used to identify and understand the molecular control of each of these processes in vitro. In this study, an apple cell culture was initiated from the widely characterised ‘Royal Gala’ cultivar. The established apple cell culture was used to develop a screening system to assess the effect of different hormones on cell differentiation, which then were characterised at molecular and cellular levels. Three different hormone pairs were screened to determine the optimal for cell expansion on actively dividing cells . Using this strategy, we were able to reproduce, in vitro, the first two stages of apple fruit cell differentiation, cell division and expansion, which was correlated with changes in genes expression of specific markers for those two stages, a cyclin-dependent kinase gene (CDKB2;2) and an expansion gene (EXP3). The cell culture provides a unique tool and opportunity to study the effect of plant hormones on cell differentiation and will allow to decipher the molecular mechanism of apple fruit development irrespective of y.