Polymyxins are the last line of defense against lethal infections caused by multidrug resistant Gram-negative pathogens. Very recently, the use of polymyxins has been greatly challenged by the emergence of the plasmid-borne mobile colistin resistance gene (mcr-1). However, the mechanistic aspects of the MCR-1 colistin resistance are still poorly understood. Here we report the comparative genomics of two new mcr-1-harbouring plasmids isolated from the human gut microbiota, highlighting the diversity in plasmid transfer of the mcr-1 gene. Further genetic dissection delineated that both the trans-membrane region and a substrate-binding motif are required for the MCR-1-mediated colistin resistance. The soluble form of the membrane protein MCR-1 was successfully prepared and verified. Phylogenetic analyses revealed that MCR-1 is highly homologous to its counterpart PEA lipid A transferase in Paenibacili, a known producer of polymyxins. The fact that the plasmid-borne MCR-1 is placed in a subclade neighboring the chromosome-encoded colistin-resistant Neisseria LptA (EptA) potentially implies parallel evolutionary paths for the two genes. In conclusion, our finding provids a first glimpse of mechanism for the MCR-1-mediated colistin resistance. Colistin is an ultimate line of refuge against fatal infections by multidrug-resistant Gram-negative pathogens. The plasmid-mediated transfer of the mobile colistin resistance gene (mcr-1) represents a novel mechanism for antibacterial drug resistance, and also poses new threats to public health. However, the mechanistic aspects of the MCR-1 colistin resistance are not fully understood. Here we report comparative genomics of two new mcr-1-harbouring plasmids isolated from the human gut microbiota. Genetic studies determined that both the transmembrane region and a substrate-binding motif are essential for its function. Phylogenetic analyses revealed that MCR-1 is highly homologous to the PEA lipid A transferase in Paenibacillus, a known producer of polymyxins. The fact that the plasmid-borne MCR-1 is placed in a subclade neighboring the chromosome-encoded colistin-resistant Neisseria LptA potentially implies parallel evolutionary paths for the two genes. Our results reveal mechanistic insights into the MCR-1-mediated colistin resistance.

Streptococcus suis (S. suis) is a family of pathogenic gram-positive bacterial strains that represents a primary health problem in the swine industry worldwide. S. suis is also an emerging zoonotic pathogen that causes severe human infections clinically featuring with varied diseases/syndromes (such as meningitis, septicemia, and arthritis). Over the past few decades, continued efforts have made significant progress toward better understanding this zoonotic infectious entity, contributing in part to the elucidation of the molecular mechanism underlying its high pathogenicity. This review is aimed at presenting an updated overview of this pathogen from the perspective of molecular epidemiology, clinical diagnosis and typing, virulence mechanism, and protective antigens contributing to its zoonosis.

SARS coronavirus (SARS-CoV), the causative agent of the large SARS outbreak in 2003, originated in bats. Many SARS-like coronaviruses (SL-CoVs) have been detected in bats, particularly those that r...

Colistin is considered to be an antimicrobial of last-resort for the treatment of multidrug-resistant Gram-negative bacterial infections. The recent global dissemination of mobilized colistin resistance (mcr) genes is an urgent public health threat. An accurate estimate of the global prevalence of mcr genes, their reservoirs and the potential pathways for human transmission are required to implement control and prevention strategies, yet such data are lacking. Publications from four English (PubMed, Scopus, the Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews and Web of Science) and two Chinese (CNKI and WANFANG) databases published between 18 November 2015 and 30 December 2018 were identified. In this systematic review and meta-analysis, the prevalence of mcr genes in bacteria isolated from humans, animals, the environment and food products were investigated. A total of 974 publications were identified. 202 observational studies were included in the systematic review and 71 in the meta-analysis. mcr genes were reported from 47 countries across six continents and the overall average prevalence was 4.7% (0.1–9.3%). China reported the highest number of mcr-positive strains. Pathogenic Escherichia coli (54%), isolated from animals (52%) and harboring an IncI2 plasmid (34%) were the bacteria with highest prevalence of mcr genes. The estimated prevalence of mcr-1 pathogenic E. coli was higher in food-animals than in humans and food products, which suggests a role for foodborne transmission. This study provides a comprehensive assessment of prevalence of the mcr gene by source, organism, genotype and type of plasmid.

Colistin is an ultimate line of refuge against multidrug-resistant Gram-negative pathogens. Very recently, the emergence of plasmid-mediated mcr-1 colistin resistance has become a great challenge to global public health, raising the possibility that dissemination of the mcr-1 gene is underestimated and diversified. Here, we report three cases of plasmid-carried MCR-1 colistin resistance in isolates from gut microbiota of diarrhea patients. Structural and functional analyses determined that the colistin resistance is conferred purely by the single mcr-1 gene. Genetic and sequence mapping revealed that mcr-1 -harbouring plasmid reservoirs are present in diversity. Together, the data represent the first evidence of diversity in mcr-1 -harbouring plasmid reservoirs of human gut microbiota. IMPORTANCE The plasmid-mediated mobile colistin resistance gene ( mcr-1 ) challenged greatly the conventional idea mentioned above that colistin is an ultimate line of refuge against lethal infections by multidrug-resistant Gram-negative pathogens. It is a possibility that diversified dissemination of the mcr-1 gene might be greatly underestimated. We report three cases of plasmid-carried MCR-1 colistin resistance in isolates from gut microbiota of diarrhea patients and functionally define the colistin resistance conferred purely by the single mcr-1 gene. Genetic and sequence mapping revealed unexpected diversity among the mcr-1 -harbouring plasmid reservoirs of human gut microbiota.