The combination of physical activity and being in nature is recognized as providing a range of significant benefits. The objective of this literature review was to compile an overview of the social benefits and costs associated with outdoor sports within the academic literature and to reflect on the quality of underlying evidence that supports the relationship. A systematic review was carried out with seven partners from different European countries, including Bulgaria, France, Germany, United Kingdom, Italy, Portugal, and Spain. From a total of 17,560 studies identified, 133 studies were selected with relevant data extracted to standardized forms. The selected studies have been analyzed with qualitative research methods. A meta-analysis could not be conducted due to the heterogeneity of the study designs and outcome measures. As a result, the review gives an overview of the social impacts associated with outdoor sports which have been clustered to six broad categories: physical health, mental health and wellbeing, education and lifelong learning, active citizenship, crime reduction, and anti-social behavior, as well as additional benefits. The review furthermore revealed gaps in the evidence base which are especially notable in the long-term effects that outdoor sports can have on personal and social development.

The 2018 Virgin Money London Marathon (2018 VMLM) was the hottest in the race’s 37-year history. The aims of this research were to (1) survey novice mass participation marathoners to examine the perceptual thermal demands of this extreme weather event and (2) investigate the effect of the air temperature on finish times. A mixed-methods design involving the collection of survey data (n = 364; male = 63, female = 294) and secondary analysis of environmental and marathon performance (676,456 finishers) between 2001 and 2019 was used. The 2018 VMLM mean finishing time was slower than the mean of all other London marathons; there were positive correlations between maximum race day temperature and finish time for mass-start participants, and the difference in maximum race day temperature and mean maximum daily temperature for the 60 days before the London Marathon (p < 0.05). Of the surveyed participants, 23% classified their thermal sensation as ‘warm’, ‘hot’ or ‘very hot’ and 68% ‘thermally comfortable’ during training, compared with a peak of 95% feeling ‘warm’, ‘hot’ or ‘very hot’ and 77% ‘uncomfortable’ or ‘very uncomfortable’ during the 2018VMLM. Organisers should use temperature forecasting and plan countermeasures such as adjusting the start time of the event to avoid high temperatures, help runners predict finish time and adjust pacing strategies accordingly and provide safety recommendations for participants at high-risk time points as well as cooling strategies.

Objectives: The 2018 Virgin Money London Marathon (2018VMLM) was the hottest in the race's 37 year history, the major aims of this research were to 1) survey novice-mass participation marathoners to examine the thermal demands of the extreme weather event; and 3) investigate the effect of the air temperature on finish times. Methods: A mixed methods design involving the collection of survey data (n = 364; male = 63, female = 294) and secondary analysis of environmental and marathon performance (676,456 finishers) between 2009 and 2018 was used. Results: The 2018VMLM was hotter than the mean of all other marathons (P < 0.05); mean finishing time was slower than the mean of all other London Marathons (P < 0.05); there were positive correlations between maximum race-day temperature and finish time for mass-start participants and championship runners, and the difference in maximum race day temperature and mean maximum daily temperature for the 60 days prior to the London Marathon (P < 0.05). 23% of surveyed participants classified their thermal sensation and comfort as 'warm', 'hot' or 'very hot', with 68% 'comfortable' during training compared with a peak of 95% feeling 'warm', 'hot' or 'very hot' and 77% 'uncomfortable' or 'very uncomfortable' during 2018VMLM. Conclusion: Organisers should use temperature forecasting and plan countermeasures such as adjusting the start time of the event to avoid high-temperatures; help runners predict finish time and adjust pacing strategies accordingly and provide safety recommendations for participants at high risk time-points as well as cooling strategies.