Correctional service employees in Ontario, Canada (n = 1487) began an online survey available from 2017 to 2018 designed to assess the prevalence and correlates of mental health challenges. Participants who provided data for the current study (n = 1032) included provincial staff working in institutional wellness (e.g., nurses) (n = 71), training (e.g., program officers) (n = 26), governance (e.g., superintendents) (n = 82), correctional officers (n = 553), administration (e.g., record keeping) (n = 25), and probation officers (n = 144, parole officers). Correctional officers, workers in institutional administration and governance positions, and probation officers reported elevated risk for mental disorders, most notably posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and major depressive disorder. Among institutional correctional staff, 61.0% of governance employees, 59.0% of correctional officers, 43.7% of wellness staff, 50.0% of training staff, and 52.0% of administrative staff screened positive for one or more mental disorders. In addition, 63.2% of probation officers screened positive for one or more mental disorders. Women working as correctional officers were more likely to screen positive than men (p < 0.05). Across all correctional occupational categories positive screens for each disorder were: 30.7% for PTSD, 37.0% for major depressive disorder, 30.5% for generalized anxiety disorder, and 58.2% for one or more mental disorders. Participants between ages 40 and 49 years, working in institutional governance, as an institutional correctional officer, or as a probational officer, separated or divorced, were all factors associated (p < 0.05) with screening positive for one or more mental disorders. The prevalence of mental health challenges for provincial correctional workers appears to be higher than federal correctional workers in Canada and further supports the need for evidence-based mental health solutions.

The convict code guides behaviors, beliefs, and interactions of incarcerated people by encouraging them to mind their own business, never back down, keep to themselves, and not get too close with correctional officers. Within communities, a similar subculture exists, termed the code of the street, which values respect, toughness, autonomy, and anti-police sentiments. Despite the overlap in their themes, these cultures have been theorized and analyzed independently. Yet, with 600,000 people entering and leaving prisons annually, it is possible that these seemingly distinct cultures blend together through the transition of people into and out of prison, raising theoretical and empirical questions about their independence. We examine the overlap between the convict code and code of the street in a representative sample of prisoners. Our results indicate that the code of the street and convict code are moderately correlated (r = 0.368 to r = 0.591), although the code of the street indicator overlaps mainly with the convict code dimension for masculinity. A sizeable group (47%) of individuals held converging beliefs regarding these two constructs. Convergence was explained primarily by years in prison, prison misconduct, gang membership, and neighborhood quality. Implications for an integrated model of culture are discussed.

Prior studies suggest that visitation may have an impact on successful reentry. At the same time, the impact of visitation on incarcerated people’s concerns about reentry has received little empirical attention. Understanding how factors such as visitation affect concerns about reentry can provide correctional officials with policy directions on how to reduce strains and enhance successful reintegration. Further, while some studies have evaluated frequency of visitation far fewer have examined the impact of quality of visitation. Using a sample of males and females incarcerated in five correctional facilities (n = 3,084), this study examines how frequency and quality of visitation impact incarcerated people’s concerns about employment, housing, debt, and recidivism upon reentry. Findings suggest that more visits reduce concerns, while negative visits increase concerns about reentry.

This research tests two potential explanations of school disciplinary responses: minority threat hypothesis and prisonization of schools. Data from the Arizona Safe and Drug-Free Schools (SDFS) survey and Arizona Youth Survey (AYS) are analyzed using ordinary least squares (OLS) regressions. Findings demonstrate that the percentage of Black, Hispanic, and Native American students was not associated with exclusionary responses to school misconduct, but was linked to decreases in mild and restorative disciplinary practices. Findings support the hypothesis that minority threat reduces access to mild and restorative disciplinary responses. Although, further research is needed on the roles of mental health professionals and counselors in school disciplinary procedures to better guide policy and school administrator expectations.