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In contemporary waste management, sampling of waste is essential whenever a specific parameter needs to be determined. Although sensor-based continuous analysis methods are being developed and enhanced, many parameters still require conventional analytics. Therefore, sampling procedures that provide representative samples of waste streams and enable sufficiently accurate analysis results are crucial. While Part I estimated the relative sampling variabilities for material classes in a replication experiment, Part II focuses on relative sampling variabilities for 30 chemical elements and the lower heating value of the same samples, i.e., 10 composite samples screened to yield 9 particle size classes (< 5 mm–400 mm). Variabilities < 20% were achieved for 39% of element-particle size class combinations but ranged up to 203.5%. When calculated for the original composite samples, variabilities < 20% were found for 57% of the analysis parameters. High variabilities were observed for elements that are expectedly subject to high constitutional heterogeneity. Besides depending on the element, relative sampling variabilities were found to depend on particle size and the mass of the particle size fraction in the sample. Furthermore, Part I and Part II results were combined, and the correlations between material composition and element concentrations in the particle size classes were interpreted and discussed. For interpretation purposes, log-ratios were calculated from the material compositions. They were used to build a regression model predicting element concentration based on material composition only. In most cases, a prediction accuracy of ± 20% of the expected value was reached, implying that a mathematical relationship exists.
S. A. Viczek; L. Kandlbauer; K. Khodier; A. Aldrian; R. Sarc. Sampling and analysis of coarsely shredded mixed commercial waste. Part II: particle size-dependent element determination. International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology 2021, 1 -16.
AMA StyleS. A. Viczek, L. Kandlbauer, K. Khodier, A. Aldrian, R. Sarc. Sampling and analysis of coarsely shredded mixed commercial waste. Part II: particle size-dependent element determination. International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology. 2021; ():1-16.
Chicago/Turabian StyleS. A. Viczek; L. Kandlbauer; K. Khodier; A. Aldrian; R. Sarc. 2021. "Sampling and analysis of coarsely shredded mixed commercial waste. Part II: particle size-dependent element determination." International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology , no. : 1-16.
Real-time material flow monitoring is not yet implemented in mixed solid waste processing, but it is important for an efficient quality assured production and the development of the smart waste factory. The present paper shows results of practical investigation of the Real-Time Material Flow Monitoring in a large-scale Solid Recovered Fuel (SRF) production plant and a semi large-scale processing line (Technical line 4.0) using mixed solid waste. The investigations aimed to research the fundamentals for generating mass flow data from volume flow data and volume and mass flow data from shredder power consumption. It could be shown that a mass determination from volume flow data with the help of density determinations can be practically realized in a good approximation (deviation < 1%) to the gravimetrically determined mass in an SRF production plant. With R2 = 0.47, the power consumption of a shredder in the SRF plant shows a low to medium correlation to the corresponding volume flow. In the 31 tests with the Technical Line 4.0, both, the mass flow and the volume flow could be measured in real-time. Combining these data results in the temporal density curve and shows strong fluctuations for shredded commercial waste. Comparing the mean bulk densities for each test with those from the density determinations of taken samples shows a robust correlation (R2 = 0.82). Analyzes of the material composition of the shredded mixed solid waste show strong correlations to bulk density for the proportions of the fractions rest (positive correlation) and plastics (negative correlation).
A. Curtis; R. Sarc. Real-time monitoring of volume flow, mass flow and shredder power consumption in mixed solid waste processing. Waste Management 2021, 131, 41 -49.
AMA StyleA. Curtis, R. Sarc. Real-time monitoring of volume flow, mass flow and shredder power consumption in mixed solid waste processing. Waste Management. 2021; 131 ():41-49.
Chicago/Turabian StyleA. Curtis; R. Sarc. 2021. "Real-time monitoring of volume flow, mass flow and shredder power consumption in mixed solid waste processing." Waste Management 131, no. : 41-49.
ReWaste4.0 is an innovative and cooperative K-Project in the period 2017–2021. Through ReWaste4.0 the transformation of the non-hazardous mixed municipal and commercial waste treatment industry towards a circular economy has started by investigating and applying the new approaches of the Industry 4.0. Vision of the ReWaste4.0 is, among others, the development of treatment plants for non-hazardous waste into a “Smart Waste Factory” in which a digital communication and interconnection between material quality and machine as well as plant performance is reached. After four years of research and development, various results have been gained and the present review article summarizes, links and discuss the outputs (especially from peer-reviewed papers) of seven sub-projects, in total, within the K-project and discusses the main findings and their relevance and importance for further development of the waste treatment sector. Results are allocated into three areas, namely: contaminants in mixed waste and technical possibilities for their reduction as well as removal; secondary raw and energy materials in mixed waste and digitalization in waste characterization and treatment processes for mixed waste. The research conducted in ReWaste4.0 will be continued in ReWaste F for further development towards a particle-, sensor- and data-based circular economy in the period 2021–2025.
Renato Sarc. The “ReWaste4.0” Project—A Review. Processes 2021, 9, 764 .
AMA StyleRenato Sarc. The “ReWaste4.0” Project—A Review. Processes. 2021; 9 (5):764.
Chicago/Turabian StyleRenato Sarc. 2021. "The “ReWaste4.0” Project—A Review." Processes 9, no. 5: 764.
Solid recovered fuel (SRF) ash consists of element oxides, which are valuable materials for cement manufacturers. When SRF is co-processed in the cement industry, its mineral content is incorporated into the clinker. Therefore, from a technical perspective, SRF ash is recycled. However, since recycling processes for materials that may be present in SRF exist, and since recycling goals are defined for different waste types, understanding the origin of these ash constituents and the contribution of different materials to the Recycling-index (R-index, i.e., the material-recyclable share of SRF) is important. In this work, the origins of Al, Ca, Fe, Si, Ti, Mg, Na, K, S, and P were first reviewed. Subsequently, ten SRF samples were sorted, and the ash content and composition of the sorting fractions (e.g., <10 mm, plastics, paper&cardboard) determined. Additionally, selected samples of polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), polystyrene (PS), polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), liquid packaging board (LPB), wood, and paper&cardboard (P&C) extracted from SRF were investigated. The results demonstrated that the materials that contributed most of the valuable oxides and ash content, and thereby to the R-index of SRF, are mixed or composite fractions, for example, the fine fraction, composites, and the sorting residues. Except for the composite LPB, no other material recovery options exist for most of these fractions. For this reason, the recycling of mixed and soiled materials or residues in the cement industry may be considered a complementary option to existing recycling processes.
S.A. Viczek; A. Aldrian; R. Pomberger; R. Sarc. Origins of major and minor ash constituents of solid recovered fuel for co-processing in the cement industry. Waste Management 2021, 126, 423 -432.
AMA StyleS.A. Viczek, A. Aldrian, R. Pomberger, R. Sarc. Origins of major and minor ash constituents of solid recovered fuel for co-processing in the cement industry. Waste Management. 2021; 126 ():423-432.
Chicago/Turabian StyleS.A. Viczek; A. Aldrian; R. Pomberger; R. Sarc. 2021. "Origins of major and minor ash constituents of solid recovered fuel for co-processing in the cement industry." Waste Management 126, no. : 423-432.
Solid recovered fuels (SRF) have increasingly substituted primary fuels in the cement industry, even up to 100%. However, contaminants originating from the discarded consumer products are transferred into waste and SRF. With increasing amounts of SRF being utilized, closely monitoring contaminant concentrations – as is already state of the art in several countries and the cement industry – is gaining importance. SRF producers may need to take measures assuring that quality criteria are met, contaminant concentrations are kept at a low level, or to produce contaminant-depleted SRF. This work investigates and discusses the potential measures to reduce contaminant concentrations: removing the fine fractions, polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), and black&grey materials. Five streams of mixed commercial waste were coarsely comminuted, screened, PET and PVC were removed using an industrial near-infrared sorter, and black&grey materials were manually removed and further sorted by fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy. Concentrations of Ag, Al, As, Ba, Ca, Cd, Cl, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Hg, K, Li, Mg, Mn, Mo, Na, Ni, P, Pb, Sb, Si, Sn, Sr, Ti, V, W, and Zn in the fractions are reported, and the effect of single and combined measures is presented. Results show that black&grey materials contain significant shares of the total Sb, Cl, and Co in the waste stream. Furthermore, the concentration of several contaminants is increased when only PET and PVC is removed. Removing the fine fraction together with PVC can lead to a concentration decrease of all investigated analytes, enabling the production of a contaminant-depleted SRF.
S.A. Viczek; K.E. Lorber; R. Pomberger; R. Sarc. Production of contaminant-depleted solid recovered fuel from mixed commercial waste for co-processing in the cement industry. Fuel 2021, 294, 120414 .
AMA StyleS.A. Viczek, K.E. Lorber, R. Pomberger, R. Sarc. Production of contaminant-depleted solid recovered fuel from mixed commercial waste for co-processing in the cement industry. Fuel. 2021; 294 ():120414.
Chicago/Turabian StyleS.A. Viczek; K.E. Lorber; R. Pomberger; R. Sarc. 2021. "Production of contaminant-depleted solid recovered fuel from mixed commercial waste for co-processing in the cement industry." Fuel 294, no. : 120414.
The recycling of source separated polyolefins (POs) (e.g., light weight packaging waste) is already state of the art. Therefore, further plastic materials contained in mixed wastes have become more important due to increasing legal pressure. Mixed commercial and municipal solid wastes contain large quantities of POs. These mixed wastes would usually be treated in waste incinerators or processed to refuse-derived fuel for cement plants. Large-scale experiments were conducted to assess the potential of such POs from these waste streams for recycling processes. The potential and applicability of a dry-mechanical and subsequently wet-mechanical (Wet-mechanical) processing with the aim of generating a PO concentrate for chemical recycling purposes was assessed. These investigations’ focus was put on the centrifugal force separator technology as the core element of Wet-mechanical processing. In addition to the input material, all output materials and process water streams were chemically and physically characterized to estimate potential treatment or recycling paths. Results demonstrate that a two-stage purification is necessary to produce POs with sufficient purity out of both wastes. Chlorine and heavy metal levels are simultaneously reduced. The increased quantity of impurities only slightly changes the density of the process waters. Process water analyses show that wastewater treatment is necessary before discharge into a receiving water or sewage treatment plant. The sediment does not fulfil any hazard-relevant properties, and different thermal treatment options are possible.
Möllnitz Selina; Bauer Markus; Schwabl Daniel; Sarc Renato. Wet-mechanical processing of a plastic-rich two-dimensional-fraction from mixed wastes for chemical recycling. Waste Management & Research: The Journal for a Sustainable Circular Economy 2021, 39, 731 -743.
AMA StyleMöllnitz Selina, Bauer Markus, Schwabl Daniel, Sarc Renato. Wet-mechanical processing of a plastic-rich two-dimensional-fraction from mixed wastes for chemical recycling. Waste Management & Research: The Journal for a Sustainable Circular Economy. 2021; 39 (5):731-743.
Chicago/Turabian StyleMöllnitz Selina; Bauer Markus; Schwabl Daniel; Sarc Renato. 2021. "Wet-mechanical processing of a plastic-rich two-dimensional-fraction from mixed wastes for chemical recycling." Waste Management & Research: The Journal for a Sustainable Circular Economy 39, no. 5: 731-743.
Particle size distributions (PSDs) belong to the most critical properties of particulate materials. They influence process behavior and product qualities. Standard methods for describing them are either too detailed for straightforward interpretation (i.e., lists of individual particles), hide too much information (summary values), or are distribution-dependent, limiting their applicability to distributions produced by a small number of processes. In this work the distribution-independent approach of modeling isometric log-ratio-transformed shares of an arbitrary number of discrete particle size classes is presented. It allows using standard empirical modeling techniques, and the mathematically proper calculation of confidence and prediction regions. The method is demonstrated on coarse-shredding of mixed commercial waste from Styria in Austria, resulting in a significant model for the influence of shredding parameters on produced particle sizes (with classes: >80 mm, 30–80 mm, 0–30 mm). It identifies the cutting tool geometry as significant, with a p-value < 10−5, while evaluating the gap width and shaft rotation speed as non-significant. In conclusion, the results question typically chosen operation parameters in practice, and the applied method has proven to be valuable addition to the mathematical toolbox of process engineers.
Karim Khodier; Renato Sarc. Distribution-Independent Empirical Modeling of Particle Size Distributions—Coarse-Shredding of Mixed Commercial Waste. Processes 2021, 9, 414 .
AMA StyleKarim Khodier, Renato Sarc. Distribution-Independent Empirical Modeling of Particle Size Distributions—Coarse-Shredding of Mixed Commercial Waste. Processes. 2021; 9 (3):414.
Chicago/Turabian StyleKarim Khodier; Renato Sarc. 2021. "Distribution-Independent Empirical Modeling of Particle Size Distributions—Coarse-Shredding of Mixed Commercial Waste." Processes 9, no. 3: 414.
To achieve future recycling targets and CO2 and waste reduction, the transfer of plastic contained in mixed waste from thermal recovery to mechanical recycling is a promising option. This requires extensive knowledge of the necessary processing depth of mixed wastes to enrich plastics and their processability in polymer processing machines. Also, the selection of a suitable processing method and product application area requires appropriate material behaviour. This paper investigates these aspects for a commercial processed, mixed waste, and two different mixed polyolefin fractions. The wastes are processed at different depths (e.g., washed/not washed, sorted into polyethylene, polypropylene, polyethylene terephthalate, polystyrene/unsorted) and then either homogenised in the extruder in advance or processed heterogeneously in the compression moulding process into plates. The produced recyclates in plate form are then subjected to mechanical, thermal, and rheological characterisation. Most investigated materials could be processed with simple compression moulding. The results show that an upstream washing process improves the achievable material properties, but homogenisation does not necessarily lead to an improvement. It was also found that a higher treatment depth (recovery of plastic types) is not necessary. The investigations show that plastic waste recovery with simple treatment from mixed, contaminated wastes into at least downcycling products is possible.
Selina Möllnitz; Michael Feuchter; Ivica Duretek; Gerald Schmidt; Roland Pomberger; Renato Sarc. Processability of Different Polymer Fractions Recovered from Mixed Wastes and Determination of Material Properties for Recycling. Polymers 2021, 13, 457 .
AMA StyleSelina Möllnitz, Michael Feuchter, Ivica Duretek, Gerald Schmidt, Roland Pomberger, Renato Sarc. Processability of Different Polymer Fractions Recovered from Mixed Wastes and Determination of Material Properties for Recycling. Polymers. 2021; 13 (3):457.
Chicago/Turabian StyleSelina Möllnitz; Michael Feuchter; Ivica Duretek; Gerald Schmidt; Roland Pomberger; Renato Sarc. 2021. "Processability of Different Polymer Fractions Recovered from Mixed Wastes and Determination of Material Properties for Recycling." Polymers 13, no. 3: 457.
Mixed commercial waste (MCW) contains contaminants that are important for several waste treatment options, e.g. the production and utilization of SRF for which limit values exist. Because these contaminants can be linked to specific materials but also occur in certain particle size classes, this paper presents the particle size-dependent distribution of 30 elements (Ag, Al, As, Ba, Ca, Cd, Cl, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Hg, K, Li, Mg, Mn, Mo, Na, Ni, P, Pb, Pd, Sb, Si, Sn, Sr, Ti, V, W, Zn) in nine particle size classes (<5 mm, 5–10 mm, 10–20 mm, 20–40 mm, 40–60 mm, 60–80 mm, 80–100 mm, 100–200 mm and 200–400 mm) of coarsely shredded mixed commercial waste collected in the area of Graz, Austria. For 27 elements a negative correlation between concentration and particle size was observed, i.e., increasing concentrations with decreasing particle size. The fine fraction 40% of Hg, Mn, Mo, Sn, W). The removal of this fraction therefore theoretically reduces concentrations [mg/kgDM] of the 27 negatively-correlated elements in the screen overflow by 2.1 to 38%, while Cd (+10%), Sb (+12%), and Cl concentrations (+17%) and the lower heating value (+16%) increase. Besides containing contaminants, the fine fraction <5 mm consisted of ~11% Fe, 12% Ca, 12% Si, and 1.5% Al, all of which are valuable raw materials for the cement industry. Fe was found to be present as oxides, primarily as magnetite and wuestite. Calcium was present as carbonates (calcite, dolomite), but also considerable amounts of calcium sulfates (bassanite, gypsum, anhydrite). Concludingly, while screening can significantly improve SRF quality with respect to heavy metals, valuable raw materials for the cement industry may be removed as well, potentially resulting in a conflict between environmental protection and resource utilization.
S.A. Viczek; K. Khodier; L. Kandlbauer; A. Aldrian; G. Redhammer; G. Tippelt; R. Sarc. The particle size-dependent distribution of chemical elements in mixed commercial waste and implications for enhancing SRF quality. Science of The Total Environment 2021, 776, 145343 .
AMA StyleS.A. Viczek, K. Khodier, L. Kandlbauer, A. Aldrian, G. Redhammer, G. Tippelt, R. Sarc. The particle size-dependent distribution of chemical elements in mixed commercial waste and implications for enhancing SRF quality. Science of The Total Environment. 2021; 776 ():145343.
Chicago/Turabian StyleS.A. Viczek; K. Khodier; L. Kandlbauer; A. Aldrian; G. Redhammer; G. Tippelt; R. Sarc. 2021. "The particle size-dependent distribution of chemical elements in mixed commercial waste and implications for enhancing SRF quality." Science of The Total Environment 776, no. : 145343.
Deriving significant experiment-based conclusions on mechanical processing of mixed solid waste is challenging: the input material cannot be downscaled in a way that enables drawing transferable conclusions from lab-scale experiments. Hence experiments need to be conducted in industry-scale, using real waste. Besides the enormous resulting experimental efforts and costs, which economically limit the number of experimental runs, identifying and quantifying significant effects is complicated by the distortion of the data introduced by the waste’s variability. The distortion is particularly high for cases where sampling is necessary and in experiments where material cannot be re-used from one run to the next. In the latter case, inter-experimental differences of the waste add to the distortion of the data. In this work, a systematic approach for deriving representative and significant results at the minimum possible effort is described and evaluated, based on the method of Design of Experiments. It is applied to a 32 runs D-optimal industry-scale coarse-shredding experiment with mixed commercial solid waste, based on a reduced cubic design model, examining the influence of the gap width, shaft rotation speed, and cutting tool geometry on the throughput behavior and energy demand. The resulting models are highly significant (model p-values < 0.0001), proving the ability to extract reliable information from industry-scale waste processing experiments. Concerning commercial waste shredding, the models provide new insights into process behavior, for example, the quadratic dependence of the mass flow on the shaft rotation speed, with the highest hourly mass flows at 84% of the maximum shaft rotation speed.
K. Khodier; C. Feyerer; S. Möllnitz; A. Curtis; R. Sarc. Efficient derivation of significant results from mechanical processing experiments with mixed solid waste: Coarse-shredding of commercial waste. Waste Management 2020, 121, 164 -174.
AMA StyleK. Khodier, C. Feyerer, S. Möllnitz, A. Curtis, R. Sarc. Efficient derivation of significant results from mechanical processing experiments with mixed solid waste: Coarse-shredding of commercial waste. Waste Management. 2020; 121 ():164-174.
Chicago/Turabian StyleK. Khodier; C. Feyerer; S. Möllnitz; A. Curtis; R. Sarc. 2020. "Efficient derivation of significant results from mechanical processing experiments with mixed solid waste: Coarse-shredding of commercial waste." Waste Management 121, no. : 164-174.
To optimize output streams in mechanical waste treatment plants dynamic particle size control is a promising approach. In addition to relevant actuators – such as an adjustable shredder gap width – this also requires technology for online and real-time measurements of the particle size distribution. The paper at hand presents a model in MATLAB® which extracts information about several geometric descriptors – such as diameters, lengths, areas, shape factors – from 2D images of individual particles taken by RGB cameras of pre-shredded, solid, mixed commercial waste and processes this data in a multivariate regression model using the Partial Least Squares Regression (PLSR) to predict the particle size class of each particle according to a drum screen. The investigated materials in this work are lightweight fraction, plastics, wood, paper-cardboard and residual fraction. The particle sizes are divided into classes defined by the screen cuts (in mm) 80, 60, 40, 20 and 10. The results show assignment reliability for certain materials of over 80%. Furthermore, when considering the results for determining a complete particle size distribution – for an exemplary real waste – the accuracy of the model is as good as 99% for the materials wood, 3D-plastics and residual fraction for each particle size class respectively as assignment errors partially compensate each other.
L. Kandlbauer; K. Khodier; D. Ninevski; R. Sarc. Sensor-based Particle Size Determination of Shredded Mixed Commercial Waste based on two-dimensional Images. Waste Management 2020, 120, 784 -794.
AMA StyleL. Kandlbauer, K. Khodier, D. Ninevski, R. Sarc. Sensor-based Particle Size Determination of Shredded Mixed Commercial Waste based on two-dimensional Images. Waste Management. 2020; 120 ():784-794.
Chicago/Turabian StyleL. Kandlbauer; K. Khodier; D. Ninevski; R. Sarc. 2020. "Sensor-based Particle Size Determination of Shredded Mixed Commercial Waste based on two-dimensional Images." Waste Management 120, no. : 784-794.
To achieve the goals of the circular economy, significant improvements in non-hazardous solid waste processing/treatment must be made. Large deficits in the digitalization of mechanical waste treatment plants (smart waste factory) offer great potential for improvement. Real-time material flow monitoring is carried out in very few plants, thus wasting considerable potential for improving plant performance. This article describes results from the authors’ own practical analyses using sensor-based technologies for monitoring material flows, an on-site investigation in a large waste treatment plant and also in a pilot-scale plant (Technical Line 4.0) using mixed commercial waste (MCW) from Austria. The obtained data shows that the quantitative monitoring of volume and mass flow (via laser triangulation as well as near-infrared (NIR) based monitoring) and material composition (NIR sensor) is possible. The observed fluctuations were categorised in short-, mid- and long-term fluctuations and were led back to their causes, i.e. discontinuous feeding process, material and machine-specific characteristics. Using the quotient of the 90% (Q90) and 10% (Q10) quantiles of time-resolved volume-flow data for the assessment of fluctuations, for the considered time-intervals, resulted in Q90 / Q10 ratios between 3.39 and 4.58. If short-term fluctuations (within the observed time-intervals) are related to the 29.6 s moving average, deviations between 1.8% and 6.8% result. To verify the relevance of such fluctuations, sensor-based sorting (SBS) experiments were conducted, revealing a reduced product purity of 6% due to short-term fluctuations in the feed of the SBS-Machine using light packaging waste (LPW).
A. Curtis; B. Küppers; S. Möllnitz; K. Khodier; R. Sarc. Real time material flow monitoring in mechanical waste processing and the relevance of fluctuations. Waste Management 2020, 120, 687 -697.
AMA StyleA. Curtis, B. Küppers, S. Möllnitz, K. Khodier, R. Sarc. Real time material flow monitoring in mechanical waste processing and the relevance of fluctuations. Waste Management. 2020; 120 ():687-697.
Chicago/Turabian StyleA. Curtis; B. Küppers; S. Möllnitz; K. Khodier; R. Sarc. 2020. "Real time material flow monitoring in mechanical waste processing and the relevance of fluctuations." Waste Management 120, no. : 687-697.
The use of plastic waste as resource gains more and more attention. In this context, material recycling is especially focused on packaging plastics. Further waste streams that contain a significant amount of plastics are mixed commercial and municipal solid waste. To assess the potential of plastics for recycling and energy recovery from these material streams large-scale experiments were conducted. The potential of mechanical pre-processing with the aim of generating a 3D-plastics pre-concentrate was assessed. The focus of these investigations was put on the relevance of the screening stage and its influence on down-stream material processing via ballistic separation and sensor-based sorting. Results demonstrate not only that the screening of both waste streams leads to enrichment of plastics in coarse particle size ranges (especially >80 mm) and transfer of contaminants, organics and minerals to fine fractions (especially <10 mm), but also that sensor-based sorting performance can be significantly enhanced due to cleaning effects on plastics, induced by the material circulation and the resulting interparticle friction in a drum screen. On the downside, the material rotation in a drum screen leads to tail-formation that can create plant down-time through clogging as well as material losses and impairment of pre-concentrates.
S. Möllnitz; B. Küppers; A. Curtis; K. Khodier; R. Sarc. Influence of pre-screening on down-stream processing for the production of plastic enriched fractions for recycling from mixed commercial and municipal waste. Waste Management 2020, 119, 365 -373.
AMA StyleS. Möllnitz, B. Küppers, A. Curtis, K. Khodier, R. Sarc. Influence of pre-screening on down-stream processing for the production of plastic enriched fractions for recycling from mixed commercial and municipal waste. Waste Management. 2020; 119 ():365-373.
Chicago/Turabian StyleS. Möllnitz; B. Küppers; A. Curtis; K. Khodier; R. Sarc. 2020. "Influence of pre-screening on down-stream processing for the production of plastic enriched fractions for recycling from mixed commercial and municipal waste." Waste Management 119, no. : 365-373.
The smart waste factory of the future will be monitored and controlled by a combination of various sensors and several real-time data sets. One essential data requirement relates to waste streams at different stages of the treatment process. In order to analyse waste by sensor-based technology, a solid database of representative waste data is necessary. Usually, this data is collected of mixed waste. The present paper describes waste on the level of individual waste particles. In the first step, particles from fine-shredded (<30 mm), non-hazardous, mixed waste have been investigated. As an example for this material, solid recovered fuel (SRF) has been used. 20 samples from five SRF-producers have been collected. From each of these samples, 800 particles have been extracted, covering eight waste fractions. In total, 15,542 particles were examined regarding their projected particle area and their particle mass. Both parameters are log-normal distributed with a median for the area of 3.62 cm2 and for the mass of 0.19 g. To investigate the relationship between the two parameters, the Pearson-Correlation-Coefficient of the logarithmised data has been calculated. The resulting coefficient of 0.57 means a good correlation. Additionally, the fuel parameters of the individual fractions were measured using laboratory analysis on composite samples of the five SRF-producers. The lower heating value, the ash content and the chlorine content are either in the range or slightly lower than the data from literature. Additional work is required to improve the usability of the data obtained for the real-time analysis of waste.
Thomas Weissenbach; Renato Sarc. Investigation of particle-specific characteristics of non-hazardous, fine shredded mixed waste. Waste Management 2020, 119, 162 -171.
AMA StyleThomas Weissenbach, Renato Sarc. Investigation of particle-specific characteristics of non-hazardous, fine shredded mixed waste. Waste Management. 2020; 119 ():162-171.
Chicago/Turabian StyleThomas Weissenbach; Renato Sarc. 2020. "Investigation of particle-specific characteristics of non-hazardous, fine shredded mixed waste." Waste Management 119, no. : 162-171.
Aleksandra Anić Vučinić; Gordan Bedeković; Renato Šarc; Vitomir Premur. Determining Metal Content in Waste Printed Circuit Boards and their Electronic Components. Journal of Sustainable Development of Energy, Water and Environment Systems 2020, 8, 590 -602.
AMA StyleAleksandra Anić Vučinić, Gordan Bedeković, Renato Šarc, Vitomir Premur. Determining Metal Content in Waste Printed Circuit Boards and their Electronic Components. Journal of Sustainable Development of Energy, Water and Environment Systems. 2020; 8 (3):590-602.
Chicago/Turabian StyleAleksandra Anić Vučinić; Gordan Bedeković; Renato Šarc; Vitomir Premur. 2020. "Determining Metal Content in Waste Printed Circuit Boards and their Electronic Components." Journal of Sustainable Development of Energy, Water and Environment Systems 8, no. 3: 590-602.
Solid Recovered Fuels (SRF) include non-combustible mineral components (e. g. CaCO3, SiO2, Al2O3) that are required as raw materials for producing clinker and are completely incorporated into the clinker during the thermal recovery of SRF. This paper discusses simple and practicable ways of finding the relative amount of SRF that may be utilised as raw material (given as the recycling index). For this purpose, the entire mineral content of SRF was determined as the ash content and its main components were identified using different analytical methods.
Alexia Aldrian; Sandra A. Viczek; Roland Pomberger; Renato Sarc. Methods for identifying the material-recyclable share of SRF during co-processing in the cement industry. MethodsX 2020, 7, 100837 .
AMA StyleAlexia Aldrian, Sandra A. Viczek, Roland Pomberger, Renato Sarc. Methods for identifying the material-recyclable share of SRF during co-processing in the cement industry. MethodsX. 2020; 7 ():100837.
Chicago/Turabian StyleAlexia Aldrian; Sandra A. Viczek; Roland Pomberger; Renato Sarc. 2020. "Methods for identifying the material-recyclable share of SRF during co-processing in the cement industry." MethodsX 7, no. : 100837.
Solid recovered fuel (SRF according to EN 15359) is frequently used to substitute primary fuels required for the clinker burning process in the cement industry. Since the ash that is formed during the combustion of the SRF is directly incorporated into the product portland cement clinker, this process is also referred to as “co-processing”. While the use of SRF in cement plants is legally considered as energy recovery, the fact that mineral constituents are incorporated into the clinker implies that technically a certain share of SRF is recycled on a material level. The paper at hand aims at determining this share by analyzing 80 SRF samples representing SRF qualities that are currently available on the market in Austria, Croatia, Slovakia, and Slovenia. Results show that the SRF ashes on average consist of 76.8 % SiO2, CaO, Al2O3 and Fe2O3, the main raw materials that are required for clinker production. Another 14.1 % consist of chemical compounds that are common clinker phases or frequently present in the primary raw materials used for clinker production. Different ways of calculating the recycling index, i.e. the share of SRF (referring to dry mass) that is used on a material level, are discussed, and recycling indices are found to range between 13.5 and 17.6 %. It is concluded that SRF ash represents a suitable secondary raw material for cement clinker manufacturing and that for the cement industry SRF-co-processing offers the possibility to contribute towards reaching the higher recycling rates specified by the European Union.
S.A. Viczek; A. Aldrian; R. Pomberger; R. Sarc. Determination of the material-recyclable share of SRF during co-processing in the cement industry. Resources, Conservation and Recycling 2020, 156, 104696 .
AMA StyleS.A. Viczek, A. Aldrian, R. Pomberger, R. Sarc. Determination of the material-recyclable share of SRF during co-processing in the cement industry. Resources, Conservation and Recycling. 2020; 156 ():104696.
Chicago/Turabian StyleS.A. Viczek; A. Aldrian; R. Pomberger; R. Sarc. 2020. "Determination of the material-recyclable share of SRF during co-processing in the cement industry." Resources, Conservation and Recycling 156, no. : 104696.
The Waste Framework Directive regulates the recycling of waste in Europe. The definition of waste is specified in different guidelines and regulations. Mixed Commercial Waste is waste from industry which is not collected separately. Currently there is little known about its composition. Mixed Municipal Waste, on the other hand, is household waste that cannot be attributed to any separately collected waste fraction (AdSLR, 2012). Both wastes are currently treated focussing on the generation of refuse-derived fuel rather than on the separation of recyclables (mainly performed for metals). The purpose of this paper is to characterise the amounts of various plastic types contained in different grain sizes of two-dimensional and three-dimensional plastics sorting fractions of both waste types. Nine types of plastics were identified as potential recycling materials for which recycling processes as well as a market are available. Both wastes were shredded, sampled and sieved into nine grain size classes (GSC). Fractions coarser than 20 mm were sorted, generating a ‘plastics-2D’ and a ‘plastics-3D’ fraction among others. The two plastics fractions were further characterised as plastic types using a near-infrared sensor and a Fourier-transform infrared spectrometer. The results reveal a potential for plastic recycling through mechanical and feedstock recycling options for the examined wastes. Certain types of plastics, of certain dimensionality, tend to come in certain grain sizes, which is essential for mechanical enrichment and discharge.
S. Möllnitz; Karim Khodier; R. Pomberger; R. Sarc. Grain size dependent distribution of different plastic types in coarse shredded mixed commercial and municipal waste. Waste Management 2020, 103, 388 -398.
AMA StyleS. Möllnitz, Karim Khodier, R. Pomberger, R. Sarc. Grain size dependent distribution of different plastic types in coarse shredded mixed commercial and municipal waste. Waste Management. 2020; 103 ():388-398.
Chicago/Turabian StyleS. Möllnitz; Karim Khodier; R. Pomberger; R. Sarc. 2020. "Grain size dependent distribution of different plastic types in coarse shredded mixed commercial and municipal waste." Waste Management 103, no. : 388-398.
Antimony, arsenic, cadmium, chlorine, chromium, cobalt, lead, mercury, nickel and their compounds are commonly used in the industrial production of various goods. At the end of the product life cycle, these elements enter the waste system as constituents of the products. Mixed municipal and commercial wastes are landfilled, biologically treated, incinerated, and/or processed in mechanical treatment plants to yield solid recovered fuel (SRF). In all these cases, inorganic contaminants that are present in the input waste material play a significant role. In mechanical waste treatment, materials containing high concentrations of these elements (contaminant carriers) can be selectively removed (e.g. by infrared sorters) to improve the output quality, but prior knowledge about the contaminant carriers is required. This paper reviews several waste-related publications in order to identify carriers of Sb, As, Cd, Cl, Cr, Co, Pb, Hg, and Ni in mixed municipal and commercial waste. Identified contaminant carriers are listed alongside ranges for expected concentrations. Furthermore, the data are combined with information on industrial applications and contaminant concentrations in products in order to discuss the reasons for the presence of the respective elements in the carriers. Generally, besides inerts or metals, identified contaminant carriers often include plastics, composite materials, leather products, textiles, rubber, electronic waste, and batteries. Moreover, it is evaluated how individual contaminant carriers are reflected by chemical waste analyses. While the findings of the paper can be applied to different waste treatment options, the discussion focuses on SRF, which is the main output of mechanical treatment plants.
Sandra Viczek; A. Aldrian; R. Pomberger; R. Sarc. Origins and carriers of Sb, As, Cd, Cl, Cr, Co, Pb, Hg, and Ni in mixed solid waste – A literature-based evaluation. Waste Management 2019, 103, 87 -112.
AMA StyleSandra Viczek, A. Aldrian, R. Pomberger, R. Sarc. Origins and carriers of Sb, As, Cd, Cl, Cr, Co, Pb, Hg, and Ni in mixed solid waste – A literature-based evaluation. Waste Management. 2019; 103 ():87-112.
Chicago/Turabian StyleSandra Viczek; A. Aldrian; R. Pomberger; R. Sarc. 2019. "Origins and carriers of Sb, As, Cd, Cl, Cr, Co, Pb, Hg, and Ni in mixed solid waste – A literature-based evaluation." Waste Management 103, no. : 87-112.
The production of Solid Recovered Fuel (SRF) and related energy recovery in the European cement industry represents the state of the art in waste management, having evolved into a highly important part of a sustainable and circular economy. This paper describes the production and quality of eight Solid Recovered Fuels (SRF) of PREMIUM quality that are produced from Municipal (Mixed) and selected Commercial Wastes (i.e. Bulky and Lightweight Fraction from Plastic Sorting Plants) in three types of treatment plants located in four European countries, namely Austria, Croatia, Slovenia and Slovakia. The investigated SRF PREMIUM Quality was produced in three different Plant Types applying various process technologies. All three types have been investigated and are described in detail (i.e. flow sheet). Eight SRF PREMIUM Qualities have been comprehensively investigated by sorting, sieving, and physical-chemical analyses. Analyses performed are in accordance with (inter)national standards (i.e. Austrian “ÖNORM”, European “EN” standards and CEN TC 343 guidelines). The results gained show that all investigated SRF fulfil the Austrian quality requirements for heavy metals before co-incineration in the cement industry and it can be confirmed that SRF produced in the investigated plants in Austria, Croatia, Slovenia and Slovakia in fact may be declared as “SRF PREMIUM Quality” that can be used for energy recovery on the European SRF market and utilized in the European cement industry.
Renato Sarc; Lisa Kandlbauer; Karl Erich Lorber; Roland Pomberger. PRODUCTION AND CHARACTERISATION OF SRF PREMIUM QUALITY FROM MUNICIPAL AND COMMERCIAL SOLID NON-HAZARDOUS WASTES IN AUSTRIA, CROATIA, SLOVENIA AND SLOVAKIA. Detritus 2019, 125 -137.
AMA StyleRenato Sarc, Lisa Kandlbauer, Karl Erich Lorber, Roland Pomberger. PRODUCTION AND CHARACTERISATION OF SRF PREMIUM QUALITY FROM MUNICIPAL AND COMMERCIAL SOLID NON-HAZARDOUS WASTES IN AUSTRIA, CROATIA, SLOVENIA AND SLOVAKIA. Detritus. 2019; (9):125-137.
Chicago/Turabian StyleRenato Sarc; Lisa Kandlbauer; Karl Erich Lorber; Roland Pomberger. 2019. "PRODUCTION AND CHARACTERISATION OF SRF PREMIUM QUALITY FROM MUNICIPAL AND COMMERCIAL SOLID NON-HAZARDOUS WASTES IN AUSTRIA, CROATIA, SLOVENIA AND SLOVAKIA." Detritus , no. 9: 125-137.