The geographical evolution of Haifa Bay and Zevulun Plain, Israel, from the late Pleistocene to the Holocene, is based on detailed analysis of drilled cores. At...

Beach nourishment along the Mediterranean coast of Israel represents a new approach to mitigate coastal erosion by adding suitable sand to threatened beaches. This ‘soft’ solution has become more environmentally and economically acceptable than traditional ‘hard’ solutions, such as seawalls, revetments, detached breakwaters and groins. Beach nourishment projects have been implemented on the Israeli coast north of Ashdod Port (2011), north of Ashkelon Marina (2015) and in the south of Haifa Bay (2016–2017). The performance of these projects was analyzed and compared with nourishment projects along the Mediterranean beaches of Italy, France and Spain. Despite a lack of detailed documentation on most of the European nourishment projects, they proved more durable than the Israeli projects, which were compromised when the imported sand eventually washed offshore. Key factor for the Israeli projects’ failure include the unsuitable morphology of the beaches; insufficient unit sand volume (m³/m—volume of nourished sand per meter of the beach length); and imported sand that was too fine versus native sand. The unique physical conditions of the Israeli coast specifically, its open shelf and straight coastline subject to relatively high waves with a very long fetch—also contributed to the poor durability of the nourishment. To improve durability on future projects: imported grain size should be at least 1.5–2.0 times the native sand; unit sand volume should be 400–500 m³/m; and supporting measures should be utilized as appropriate.

In the last 100 years, the population of the land of Israel has increased dramatically, accompanied by a very intense and accelerated economic and industrial growth. The objective of the present review is to reveal how these major changes have affected the Mediterranean marine and coastal environment. The present review analyzes the global, regional, and local factors and processes that cause substantial environmental changes affecting a variety of marine habitats and taxa. During the past century these include: (1) seawater warming that enhances the considerable introduction and establishment of non-indigenous tropical, i.e., Lessepsian, species; (2) overfishing of native biota that seems to contribute to this process; (3) sea-level rise, associated with climate change, which may threaten the sensitive intertidal abrasion platforms; (4) chemical, noise, and light pollution and marine debris; (5) massive sand mining from the beaches, which caused severe erosion in many coastal sections and was banned in Israel in 1964; (6) extensive dredging in the sea, mainly related to the construction and development of large ports, which can be detrimental for the benthic biota, especially in rocky substrates; and (7) marine structures (harbors, marinas, detached breakwaters) that interfere with the natural pattern of sand transport along the coast and cause morphological changes (sand erosion or accumulation) on nearby beaches and the seabed. Israel’s coast is presently characterized by intense anthropogenic activity and many stakeholders with considerable conflicts between them and with the marine ecosystem. A few environmental impacts have ceased, and others have been reduced considerably, but the extent of many additional types have increased significantly, and new impacts have appeared in recent years. Some environmental impacts are beyond our control, and others can be reduced by proper management, but it is predicted that certain major environmental impacts, such as Lessepsian migration, will continue in the future at enhanced rates.

Archaeological, fluvial and morphological features are used to reconstruct sea-level changes and landscape evolution on the northern Carmel coast, Israel during the Holocene. Between 8900 BP and 7000 BP1 sea level lay between 35 m and 7 m below present, rising at an average rate of 12-14 mm/yr. This rate decreased to 2-4 mm/yr between 7000 BP and 4000 BP, with the sea between –7 m and present MSL. Since the Middle Bronze Age (4000 BP), sea level has been within ± 0.5 m. The landscape has evolved in five main stages, linked to the Holocene marine transgression and changes in the fluvial water regime. (1) Around 8900 BP, sea level lay around –35 m. The southern coastline between N. Megadim and N. Maharal was straight and sandy. North of N. Oren, the coastline was mostly rocky, with marshy clays embedded in the troughs between the coastal kurkar ridges. All southern wadis, from N. Megadim to N. Maharal, crossed the Carmel coast kurkar ridge through the N. Oren canyon. The northern wadis from N. Mitleh to N. Ahuza were blocked and flowed northward, crossing the Carmel coast ridge westward through N. Ovadia channel and at Kfar Samir. (2) Between 8200 BP and 7500 BP, sea level lay around –16 m. North of N. Oren the coastline was extensively indented, creating lagoons and shallow bays. To the south, the coast was straight and sandy. Alluvial sediments filled the eastern trough and water overflow allowed streams to flow directly to the sea. (3) Between 7000 BP and 6500 BP, the sea was around 9 m below present. A row of offshore islands was situated parallel to the coast from Atlit northward. (4) During the Chalcolithic period (6000-5700 BP) sand dune barriers interrupted natural drainage and a series of polyhaline lagoons was formed. (5) Between 5700 and the Middle Bronze Age, sea level has risen to its present position.