Mineralized tissues accumulate elements that play crucial roles in animal health. Although elemental content of bone, blood and teeth of human and some animal species have been characterized, data for many others are lacking, as well as species comparisons. Here we describe the distribution of elements in horn (Bovidae), antler (Cervidae), teeth and bone (humerus) across a number of species determined by handheld X-ray fluorescence (XRF) to better understand differences and potential biological relevance. A difference in elemental profiles between horns and antlers was observed, possibly due to the outer layer of horns being comprised of keratin, whereas antlers are true bone. Species differences in tissue elemental content may be intrinsic, but also related to feeding habits that contribute to mineral accumulation, particularly for toxic heavy metals. One significant finding was a higher level of iron (Fe) in the humerus bone of elephants compared to other species. This may be an adaptation of the hematopoietic system by distributing Fe throughout the bone rather than the marrow, as elephant humerus lacks a marrow cavity. We also conducted discriminant analysis and found XRF was capable of distinguishing samples from different species, with humerus bone being the best source for species discrimination. For example, we found a 79.2% correct prediction and success rate of 80% for classification between human and non-human humerus bone. These findings show that handheld XRF can serve as an effective tool for the biological study of elemental composition in mineralized tissue samples and may have a forensic application.

Background: Elephant camps are among the most attractive destinations in Thailand for tourists from many countries. A wide range of management strategies are used by these camps, which can have varied impacts on health and welfare of elephants. Methods: This study surveyed 33 camps with 627 elephants in northern Thailand to quantify the types of management practices and work activities experienced by captive elephants. The survey consisted of an interview with camp owners, and direct observations of camp operations. Results: Data revealed considerable variation in elephant demographics, work activities, elephant care (i.e., housing, restraint, nutrition, health care, and breeding), and mahout management among the camps. In general, older camps (those in existence for >16 years) were involved in more intensive activities, like riding with saddles and shows. By contrast, newer camps provided more one-on-one activities for tourists and elephants, and emphasized more intimate, relaxing experiences (e.g., feeding, bathing, walking) than entertainment. A demographic shift also was observed, with elephants 20 years of age and younger having a sex ratio closer to 1:1 compared to elephants in older age categories (1:4.1–1:9.8). Discussion: Shifts in elephant management to less intensive activities were observed, which could have positive implications for elephant welfare. The shifting sex ratio suggests successful captive breeding is resulting in the birth of more males, which could present new welfare challenges in the future, because bulls can be more difficult to manage and socialize, and are more likely to be kept isolated during musth. Ultimately, the goal is to understand how camp activities affect welfare, and to develop science-based guidelines and standards to aid in the management of both male and female elephants used in tourism.

Nganvongpanit K, et al. J Vet Sci. 2013 Jun;14(2):215-222. http://dx.doi.org/10.4142/jvs.2013.14.2.215

Background: Variation in management across elephant camps likely has differential effects on the well-being of elephants.Methods: This study calculated body condition, foot health and skin wound scores (WSs) for 122 elephants from 15 elephant camps in Chiang Mai province, and examined relationships to management factors using a multi-variable modeling approach.Results: The majority of elephants had high body condition scores (BCS) indicative of being overweight or obese, mild foot problems, but few visible wounds. Females had higher BCSs than males, as did elephants provided a water source at night. Increasing age was associated with higher foot and WSs. Higher WSs were observed in about a quarter of the cases where mahouts carried a hook. Wounds related to saddle riding were rare. Elephants that rested on sand floors at night had a decreased risk of high WSs compared to elephants that rested on compact dirt floors.Discussion: Findings emphasize the need for elephant camps to adjust management activities that negatively affect body condition (e.g., feeding too many sweet treats), foot health (e.g., hard substrates) and wounding (e.g., misuse of equipment) to improve health and welfare of this population.