This study assesses the changes in the spatial structure of the landscape between 1825 and 2019 in the isolated, protected forest complex of the Niemodlin Forests. Based on the analysis of changes in this structure, a change the supporting ecosystem services related to the protection of biodiversity was proposed. The landscape metrics were used separately for the analysis of the structure of the whole landscape, and individual types of ecosystems were used in the research. There were no major changes in the share of individual types of ecosystems during the period under review. At the same time, a very large increase in built-up areas and tree stands was found in 1825. Landscape metrics point to internal changes in the landscape composition, which is important for the functioning of the landscape and is related to the fragmentation and increasing isolation of ecosystems. Changes in the share of the surface of individual types of ecosystems in the landscape do not provide enough information about the actual structural and functional changes and ongoing ecosystem support services. There has been ecosystem degradation that is associated with freshwater habitats—surface waters, marshlands, meadows and pastures, as well as ecosystem support services related to these habitats. Changes in the spatial structure of the landscape cannot be solely deduced on the basis of changes in landscape metrics that are calculated for the whole landscape. Changes in the spatial composition of individual groups of ecosystems should be analyzed. Landscape metrics are very helpful in studying changes in the structure and function of ecosystem services.

Currently in Poland, power engineering based on hard coal and lignite plays the dominant role. This significantly impedes the attainment of 15% share of energy produced from renewable sources by 2020 and has a negative impact on air quality in Poland. A solution to this unfavourable situation may be to develop renewable dispersed energy with particular emphasis on installations using photovoltaic. Strongly urbanized areas have high electricity demand, and at the same time low availability of areas where it is possible to locate renewable energy sources. In this study, the possibility of using roofs of buildings in city centres for the purpose of photovoltaic micro-installation was analysed. A case study was carried out for two selected districts of the city of Opole. Opole has sunshine conditions which are representative for Poland. The analysis of photovoltaic potential of roofs in urbanised areas was carried out using geographical information systems (GIS). The analysis showed a high photovoltaic potential of the two selected districts of Opole: the potential to generate locally almost 25% of the electrical energy required. The proposed method of determining the photovoltaic potential of roofs in city centres can be used in Polish conditions, as well as in Central Europe.

The development of onshore wind energy is linked to the conditions for landscape protection and development established during the implementation of the European Landscape Convention (ELC). In Poland, the implementation of the ELC results in the designation and protection of priority landscapes, which may restrict the construction of new wind farms. The widespread ratification of the ELC by European countries where wind farms are being developed makes the possibility of limiting wind energy development through ELC implementation an important issue from a research and practical perspective. Experience from Poland can be helpful in optimizing the implementation process without impacting the total installed capacity of wind farms. Using GIS tools and a multi-criteria assessment of the conditions for excluding areas from wind energy development in Poland, the scale of territorial barriers was assessed in the variants without and with priority landscapes. The resources available for wind farms and the reduction in these resources associated with the implementation of the ELC were assessed quantitatively and spatially. The amount of capacity that can be connected and that will be limited by the implementation of the ELC was estimated. The analysis was conducted for the country, its regions, and zones with varying wind conditions predisposing to wind energy development. An approximately 5% reduction in the territorial potential for onshore wind energy development was observed due to the implementation of the ELC. Significant spatial variation was observed, including regional limitations on wind farms associated with the implementation of the ELC. Spatial barriers to development result not only from the presence of high-quality landscapes but also from varying regional policies for their protection and shaping. There is a lack of national coordination of regional policies for the implementation of the ELC, and there is no coordination of this process with other plans and strategies, including energy transformation and security. Despite the identified limitations to wind energy development, no threat to the achievement of strategic wind energy development goals related to connecting new capacity by 2030 and 2040 has been identified. However, in the longer term, as areas available for wind energy development become increasingly scarce, implementing ELC may pose a significant barrier to energy transition. Research indicates that the ELC implementation model in Poland, which emphasizes landscape protection rather than landscape planning and sustainable management, is not beneficial for onshore wind energy. It is necessary to integrate landscape protection policy with energy transition policy, particularly in zones with the most favorable wind (economic) conditions for onshore wind energy development.