The molybdo–flavoenzymes are structurally related proteins that require a molybdopterin cofactor and FAD for their catalytic activity. In mammals, four enzymes are known: xanthine oxidoreductase, aldehyde oxidase and two recently described mouse proteins known as aldehyde oxidase homologue 1 and aldehyde oxidase homologue 2. The present review article summarizes current knowledge on the structure, enzymology, genetics, regulation and pathophysiology of mammalian molybdo–flavoenzymes. Molybdo–flavoenzymes are structurally complex oxidoreductases with an equally complex mechanism of catalysis. Our knowledge has greatly increased due to the recent crystallization of two xanthine oxidoreductases and the determination of the amino acid sequences of many members of the family. The evolution of molybdo–flavoenzymes can now be traced, given the availability of the structures of the corresponding genes in many organisms. The genes coding for molybdo–flavoenzymes are expressed in a cell-specific fashion and are controlled by endogenous and exogenous stimuli. The recent cloning of the genes involved in the biosynthesis of the molybdenum cofactor has increased our knowledge on the assembly of the apo-forms of molybdo–flavoproteins into the corresponding holo-forms. Xanthine oxidoreductase is the key enzyme in the catabolism of purines, although recent data suggest that the physiological function of this enzyme is more complex than previously assumed. The enzyme has been implicated in such diverse pathological situations as organ ischaemia, inflammation and infection. At present, very little is known about the pathophysiological relevance of aldehyde oxidase, aldehyde oxidase homologue 1 and aldehyde oxidase homologue 2, which do not as yet have an accepted endogenous substrate.

(2012). The role of aldehyde oxidase in drug metabolism. Expert Opinion on Drug Metabolism & Toxicology: Vol. 8, No. 4, pp. 487-503. doi: 10.1517/17425255.2012.663352

Mammalian aldehyde oxidases are a small group of proteins belonging to the larger family of molybdo-flavoenzymes along with xanthine oxidoreductase and other bacterial enzymes. The two general types of reactions catalyzed by aldehyde oxidases are the hydroxylation of heterocycles and the oxidation of aldehydes into the corresponding carboxylic acids. Different animal species are characterized by a different complement of aldehyde oxidase genes. Humans contain a single active gene, while marsupials and rodents are characterized by four such genes clustering at a short distance on the same chromosome. At present, little is known about the physiological relevance of aldehyde oxidases in humans and other mammals, although these enzymes are known to play a role in the metabolism of drugs and compounds of toxicological importance in the liver. The present article provides an overview of the current knowledge of genetics, evolution, structure, enzymology, tissue distribution and regulation of mammalian aldehyde oxidases.

The nuclear retinoic acid receptor RARγ2 undergoes proteasome‐dependent degradation upon ligand binding. Here we provide evidence that the domains that signal proteasome‐mediated degradation overlap with those that activate transcription, i.e. the activation domains AF‐1 and AF‐2. The AF‐1 domain signals RARγ2 degradation through its phosphorylation by p38MAPK in response to RA. The AF‐2 domain acts via the recruitment of SUG‐1, which belongs to the 19S regulatory subunit of the 26S proteasome. Blocking RARγ2 degradation through inhibition of either the p38MAPK pathway or the 26S proteasome function impairs its RA‐induced transactivation activity. Thus, the turnover of RARγ2 is linked to transactivation.

Partial protein sequence data obtained on intestinal alkaline phosphatase indicated a high degree of homology with the reported sequence of the placental isoenzyme. Accordingly, placental alkaline phosphatase cDNA was cloned and used as a probe to clone intestinal alkaline phosphatase cDNA. The latter is somewhat larger (3.1 kilobases) than the cDNA for the placental isozyme (2.8 kilobases). Although the 3' untranslated regions are quite different, there is almost 90% homology in the translated regions of the two isozymes. There are, however, significant differences at their amino and carboxyl termini and a substitution of an alanine in intestinal alkaline phosphatase for a glycine in the active site of the placental isozyme.