Separate populations of M cells have been detected in the follicle-associated epithelium of Peyer’s patches (PPs) and the villous epithelium of the small intestine, but the traits shared by or distinguishing the two populations have not been characterized. Our separate study has demonstrated that a potent mucosal modulator cholera toxin (CT) can induce lectin Ulex europaeus agglutinin-1 and our newly developed M cell-specific mAb NKM 16-2-4-positive M-like cells in the duodenal villous epithelium. In this study, we determined the gene expression of PP M cells, CT-induced villous M-like cells, and intestinal epithelial cells isolated by a novel approach using FACS. Additional mRNA and protein analyses confirmed the specific expression of glycoprotein 2 and myristoylated alanine-rich C kinase substrate (MARCKS)-like protein by PP M cells but not CT-induced villous M-like cells. Comprehensive gene profiling also suggested that CT-induced villous M-like cells share traits of both PP M cells and intestinal epithelial cells, a finding that is supported by their unique expression of specific chemokines. The genome-wide assessment of gene expression facilitates discovery of M cell-specific molecules and enhances the molecular understanding of M cell immunobiology.

The Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is a ubiquitous human pathogen linked to various diseases, including infectious mononucleosis and multiple types of cancer. To control and eliminate EBV, the host’s immune system deploys its most potent defenses, including pattern recognition receptors, Natural Killer cells, CD8⁺ and CD4⁺ T cells, among others. The interaction between EBV and the human immune system is complex and multifaceted. EBV employs a variety of strategies to evade detection and elimination by both the innate and adaptive immune systems. This demonstrates EBV’s mastery of navigating the complexities of the immunological landscape. Further investigation into these complex mechanisms is imperative to advance the development of enhanced therapeutic approaches with heightened efficacy. This review provides a comprehensive overview of various mechanisms known to date, employed by the EBV to elude the immune response, while establishing enduring latent infections or instigate its lytic replication.

Key words Zika virus; CXCL10; biomarkers; chemokines; cytokines

Cytomegalovirus (CMV) and Epstein‐Barr virus (EBV) infections are widely distributed throughout the world. EBV is linked to various hematological and autoimmune disorders whereas CMV might play important role in the progression of chronic hematological diseases, such as hemoglobinopathies, lymphomas, myelomas, hemophilia, and aplastic and sickle cell anemia. Both viruses produce a viral homolog of human interleukin‐10 that can cause general suppression of immune response, increasing susceptibility to other infections. These viruses can remain latent in the host cells and be reactivated when the host immune system is compromised. Studies showing the impact of CMV and EBV infections on hematological disorders are scarce and unclear in the context of coinfection. This review intends to present the biology, prevalence, and impact of CMV and EBV infections in patients with hematological diseases.

Multi-drug resistant forms of Pseudomonas aeruginosa (MDRPA) are a major source of nosocomial infections and when discharged into streams and rivers from hospital wastewater treatment plants (HWWTP) they are known to be able to persist for extended periods. In the city of Manaus (Western Brazilian Amazon), the effluent of three HWWTPs feed into the urban Mindu stream which crosses the city from its rainforest source before draining into the Rio Negro. The stream is routinely used by Manaus residents for bathing and cleaning (of clothes as well as domestic utensils) and, during periods of flooding, can contaminate wells used for drinking water. 16S rRNA metagenomic sequence analysis of 293 cloned PCR fragments, detected an abundance of Pseudomonas aeruginosa (P. aeruginosa) at the stream’s Rio Negro drainage site, but failed to detect it at the stream’s source. An array of antimicrobial resistance profiles and resistance to all 14 tested antimicrobials was detected among P. aeruginosa cultures prepared from wastewater samples taken from water entering and being discharged from a Manaus HWWTP. Just one P. aeruginosa antimicrobial resistance profile, however, was detected from cultures made from Mindu stream isolates. Comparisons made between P. aeruginosa isolates’ genomic DNA restriction enzyme digest fingerprints, failed to determine if any of the P. aeruginosa found in the Mindu stream were of HWWTP origin, but suggested that Mindu stream P. aeruginosa are from diverse origins. Culturing experiments also showed that P. aeruginosa biofilm formation and the extent of biofilm formation produced were both significantly higher in multi drug resistant forms of P. aeruginosa. Our results show that a diverse range of MDRPA are being discharged in an urban stream from a HWWTP in Manaus and that P. aeruginosa strains with ampicillin and amikacin can persist well within it.