The microstructural and physicochemical compositions of bean (Phaseolus vulgaris), lentil (Lens culinaris Merr.), soybean (Glycine max L.), chickpea (Cicer aretinium L.) and lupine (Lupinus albus) were investigated over 2 and 4 days of germination. Different changes were noticed during microscopic observations (Stereo Microscope, SEM) of the legume seeds subjected to germination, mostly related to the breakages of the seed structure. The germination caused the increase in protein content for bean, lentil, and chickpea and of ash content for lentil, soybean and chickpea. Germination increased the availability of sodium, magnesium, iron, zinc and also the acidity for all legume types. The content of fat decreased for lentil, chickpea, and lupine, whereas the content of carbohydrates and pH decreased for all legume types during the four-day germination period. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopic (FT-IR) spectra show that the compositions of germinated seeds were different from the control and varied depending on the type of legume. The multivariate analysis of the data shows close associations between chickpea, lentil, and bean and between lupine and soybean samples during the germination process. Significant negative correlations were obtained between carbohydrate contents and protein, fat and ash at the 0.01 level.

Amaranth is an underutilized pseudocereal that can be used to supplement wheat flour (WF) in order to improve the nutritional quality of bread. Bread digestibility is impacted by particle size which produces different nutritional properties. This research aims to evaluate the baking characteristics of optimal wheat–amaranth composite flour for each studied amaranth flour (AF) particle size at doses previously established based on an optimization process and to characterize from a physical, textural, nutritional, and sensorial point of view the obtained bread. The results revealed that the optimal wheat–amaranth composite flour with medium and small particle size, respectively showed a slightly lower α-amylase activity, while dough development time was significantly higher compared to the WF. A significant (p < 0.05) decrease was observed in the elasticity, deformation energy, and dynamic rheological parameters of the optimal composite dough for all the particle sizes, whereas fermentation parameters showed higher values compared to the control, indicating the ability of the gluten structure in large, medium, and small particle sizes of AF to hold the gas and to expand without collapsing. The physical, textural, and especially nutritional characteristics of the optimal WF-AF bread were enhanced. The sensory evaluation results revealed high scores (8.70) for the acceptability of optimal bread with a medium particle size as compared to wheat bread (8.25). The protein and ash content of the optimal breads with large, medium, and small AF particle sizes, respectively, increased significantly, from 8.92 to 10.58%, and 0.82 to 0.99%, respectively, relative to the wheat flour bread (8.35% and 0.72%, respectively). The mineral content was up to two times higher in the optimal breads compared to wheat flour bread. The findings generated from this study are helpful in bakery industry for designing products with enhanced nutritional properties and for introducing new products to the market.

The aim of this research was to investigate a technological approach to decrease the sodium content from bakery products in order to respond to the World Health Organization (WHO)’s recommendation to reduce dietary salt intake. Due to the fact that sodium chloride is one of the main ingredients from baking products that affects dough rheology and therefore the technological process of the bakery products, it is important to evaluate these properties. This study analyzes the effect of sea salt with low sodium content (SS) and dry sourdough from wheat flour (SD) as substitutes for sodium chloride on dough rheological properties and on mixing, extension, pasting, and fermentation process by using Farinograph, Extensograph, Amylograph, Falling Number, and Rheofermentometer devices. The results were analyzed using response surface methodology. SS presented a strengthening effect on the gluten network whereas SD presented a weakening one. On extension properties, SS and SD presented a significant positive effect (p < 0.01) on resistance to extension (R₅₀) and maximum resistance to extension (R_max) values. For pasting properties, SS increased peak viscosity and falling number values whereas SD decreased them. On fermentation properties, SS decreased the maximum height of gaseous production and total CO₂ volume production and increased the retention coefficient whereas SD presented an antagonistic effect on these parameters.

Different wheat species, common wheat (Triticum aestivum subsp. aestivum), spelt (Triticum aestivum subsp. spelta) and einkorn (Triticum monococcum subsp. monococcum), were analyzed for physicochemical (moisture, ash, protein, wet gluten, lipid, starch, carbohydrates, test weight and thousand-kernel mass) and mineral elements (Ca, Mg, K, Na, Zn, Fe, Mn and Cu) concentrations in grains. Additionally, wheat grain microstructure was determined using a scanning electron microscope. SEM micrographs of wheat grains show that einkorn has smaller type A starch granule diameters and more compact protein bonds compared to common wheat and spelt grains, making it easier to digest. The ancient wheat grains presented higher values for ash, protein, wet gluten and lipid content compared to the common wheat grains, whereas the carbohydrates and starch content were significantly (p < 0.05) lower. The mean values showed that spelt (Triticum aestivum subsp. spelta) grains presented the highest values for Ca, Mg and K, while einkorn (Triticum monococcum subsp. monococcum) grains had the highest values for the microelements Zn, Mn and Cu. The highest values of Fe were recorded for common wheat varieties whereas no significant differences among the species were obtained for Na content. The principal component analysis (p > 0.05) between wheat flours characteristics showed a close association between wheat grain species and between the chemical characteristics of gluten and protein content (r = 0.994), lipid and ash content (r = 0.952) and starch and carbohydrate content (r = 0.927), for which high positive significant correlations (p < 0.05) were obtained. Taking into account that Romania is the fourth largest wheat producer at the European level, this study is of great global importance. According to the results obtained, the ancient species have higher nutritional value from the point of view of chemical compounds and macro elements of minerals. This may be of great importance for consumers who demand bakery products with high nutritional quality.

Existing food trends and modern consumers’ nutritional preferences have led to a rising demand for plant-based sources of protein such as hemp seed meal and the possibility of consumption hemp-rich products, most often in wheat-based staple foods, such as pasta. Pasta, as a conventional food product, is widely consumed worldwide due to its nutritional value, long shelf life, easy preparation, versatility of uses and also relatively low cost, which has made this product popular over time. Five formulations of rigatoni-shaped pasta obtained by partial replacement of wheat grain flour with 5%, 10%, 15% and 20% hemp seed meal (HSM) were studied regarding the technological, physicochemical, textural, antioxidant and sensory properties of the pasta samples. The substitution of wheat flour with hemp seed meal (HSM) led to a slight increase in the cooking loss (CL) and optimal cooking time (OCT) compared to the control sample, while the water absorption (WA) and swelling index (SI) decreased during evaluation. The experimental results also showed a decrease in luminosity and fracturability, with an increased firmness of pasta dough. Moreover, the developed pasta showed a significant improvement in antioxidant capacity in terms of total phenolic content (TPC) and antioxidant activity (DPPH). The pasta samples with 15% and 20% HSM substitutes experienced a browning process due to the Maillard reactions during drying, as well as a color loss during cooking; however, the color changes did not affect the acceptability of the product. The partial replacement of wheat flour with hemp seed protein highlighted the possibility of developing a new innovative type of pasta that claims a functional benefit and presents an improved nutritional value, mainly due to the partial protein intake, as well as certain benefits for a human diet.

The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of formulation factors, sea salt (SS), dry sourdough (SD) and fermented sugar (FS) as sodium chloride replacers in wheat flour on dough mixing, extension, pasting and fermentation rheological properties, evaluated by Farinograph, Extensograph, Amylograph and Rheofermentometer devices. With regard to mixing and extension properties, SS and FS presented a strengthening effect, whereas SD presented a weakening one. SS and FS presented a positive effect on dough stability, energy and resistance, whereas SD presented a negative one. On the Amylograph, peak viscosity increased by SS and FS addition and decreased when SD was incorporated in the dough recipe. During fermentation, dough development and gas production in the dough system increased after SS and SD addition, whereas they decreased after FS addition. Response surface methodology (RSM) was used to investigate the effect of independent variables on the rheological properties of the dough. Mathematical models between the independent variables, SS, SD and FS, and the dependent variables, represented by the rheological values of the dough, were obtained. The best formulation obtained was of 0.30 g/100 g SS, 0.50 g/100 g SD and 1.02 mL/100 g FS addition with a 0.618 desirability value, following Derringer’s desirability function approach. For this formulation, bread quality characteristics were better appreciated than for those obtained for the control sample, in which 1.5% NaCl was incorporated in wheat flour.