The composition of human milk is dynamic and can vary according to many maternal factors, such as diet and nutritional status. This study investigated the association of maternal nutrition and body composition with human milk composition. All measurements and analyses were done at three time points: during the first (n = 40), third (n = 22), and sixth (n = 15) month of lactation. Human milk was analyzed using the Miris human milk analyzer (HMA), body composition was measured with bioelectrical bioimpedance (BIA) using a Maltron BioScan 920-II, and the assessment of women’s nutrition was based on a three-day dietary record. The correlation coefficient (Pearson’s r) did not show a significant statistical relationship between human milk composition and nutrients in women’s diet at three time points. For women in the third month postpartum, we observed moderate to strong significant correlations (r ranged from 0.47 to 0.64) between total protein content in milk and the majority of body composition measures as follows: positive correlations: % fat mass (r = 0.60; p = 0.003), fat-free mass expressed in kg (r = 0.63; p = 0.001), and muscle mass (r = 0.47; p = 0.027); and negative correlation: % total body water (r = −0.60; p = 0.003). The variance in milk fat content was related to the body mass index (BMI), with a significant positive correlation in the first month postpartum (r = 0.33; p = 0.048). These findings suggest that it is not diet, but rather the maternal body composition that may be associated with the nutritional value of human milk.

Diet is a modifiable risk factor for cardiovascular disease (CVD). To assess diet quality in the adult Polish population, taking into consideration consumption of various nutrients as well as the total diet quality. Within the frame of the National Multicentre Health Survey (WOBASZ II), a random sample of the whole Polish population aged 20 years and above was screened during the years 2013-2014. Dietary habits were assessed in 5690 subjects (2554 men and 3136 women). Nutrient intakes were compared to the Dietary Reference Intakes. Total diet quality was measured using the Healthy Diet Indicator (HDI) score, based on the World Health Organisation recommendations for CVD prevention, that includes 7 nutrients (saturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids, cholesterol, protein, dietary fibre, fruits and vegetables, free sugars) and ranges from 0 (the least healthy diet) to 7 (the healthiest diet). The studied group was characterised by a high prevalence of overweight and obesity (69% in men vs. 59% in women), hypercholesterolaemia (56% vs. 55%, respectively), hypertension (50% vs. 42%), and diabetes (12% vs. 10%). At the same time, a significant percentage of Poles had improper dietary habits. A low fat and low cholesterol diet was reported by only 8% and a low calorie diet by 1% of the respondents. Adding salt to already seasoned dishes was reported by 27% of men and 18% of women, and 56% and 30% of them, respectively, consumed meat products with visible fat. The diet of most adult Polish citizens was found to be not balanced. Vitamins A, C, E, B1, B2, B6, and B12, protein, dietary cholesterol and fruits/vegetables were consumed in recommended doses only by 44-80% of the respondents. The recommended intake of fat, saturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids, which significantly affect lipid levels, was found in 18-37% of the respondents. Dietary intakes of folate and minerals important for the prevention of hypertension were insufficient. The desired level of folate intake was found only in 13-26% of the respondents, and that of magnesium, calcium and potassium in 5-36% of them. The average HDI value was about 3.2 (out of the maximum of 7). A healthy diet (5-7 points) was noted in 15% of adult Poles. Most subjects (60%) were characterised by a low quality diet (0-3 points). Nevertheless, about 55% of respondents believed that their diet was appropriate. The quality of dietary habits of the majority of the adult Polish population falls far short of the recommendations relevant for CVD prevention.

The present study investigates the influence of selected infant and maternal factors on the energy and macronutrient composition of mature human milk (HM). The study enrolled 77 mothers at 4–8 weeks postpartum. Each mother provided 1 sample of HM. Each extracted HM sample was formed by mixing four subsamples of HM, each of which were obtained in one predefined 6-h periods of the day. Among maternal factors, the analysis included: anthropometric data before and after pregnancy; weight gain in pregnancy; body composition, assessed using the Maltron BioScan 920-II to analyze bioimpedance; and dietary intake, assessed with three-day dietary records. Among the neonatal factors, birth weight and length, number of daily feedings and type of delivery were included. The composition of HM, including energy content, protein, fat and carbohydrate concentrations, was analyzed using the Miris human milk analyzer. Pearson’s and Spearman’s correlation coefficients and multivariable logistic regression models were used to analyze the association between the selected maternal and infant factors and HM milk composition. It was found that total protein content of HM was correlated with pre-pregnancy BMI (Spearman rho = 0.238; p = 0.037), current lean body mass (Spearman rho = −0.293, p = 0.01) and total water content (Spearman rho = −0.315, p = 0.005). Carbohydrates were the only macronutrients whose composition was significantly affected by the infant factors. It was reported that higher carbohydrate content was associated with male sex (OR = 4.52, p = 0.049). Our results show that maternal and infant factors, especially maternal pre-pregnancy and current nutritional status and infant sex, interact and affect HM composition, suggesting that macronutrient and energy content in HM may be determined in pregnancy and may have unique compositional profile for every mother–infant dyad.

The adipose tissue is an active endocrine organ which synthesizes and secretes a variety of adipokines, including adiponectin with its anti-inflammatory properties. Its expression is influenced by numerous factors such as age, sex, body weight and adipose tissue content. However, dietary factors, i.e., diet structure and the percentage of individual nutrients and products, are very important modulators. Beneficial dietary habits are the Mediterranean diet, DASH diet, diet based on plant products and diet with reduced energy value. Moreover, the share of individual products and nutrients which increase the concentration of adiponectin is worth noting. This group may include monounsaturated fatty acids, polyunsaturated omega-3 fatty acids, dietary fiber, polyphenols, alcohol and milk products. Conversely, dietary ingredients which have a negative effect on the concentration of adiponectin are typical components of the Western diet: saturated fatty acids, trans fatty acids, monosaccharides and disaccharides, and red meat. Furthermore, a diet characterized by a high glycemic index such as a high-carbohydrate low-fat diet also seems to be unfavorable. Due to the fact that available knowledge should be systematized, this study aimed to summarize the most recent research on the influence of dietary factors on the concentration of adiponectin.

This study determined fatty acid (FA) concentrations in maternal milk and investigated the association between omega-3 fatty acid levels and their maternal current dietary intake (based on three-day dietary records) and habitual dietary intake (based on intake frequency of food products). Tested material comprised 32 samples of human milk, coming from exclusively breastfeeding women during their first month of lactation. Milk fatty acids were analyzed as fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) by gas chromatography using a Hewlett-Packard 6890 gas chromatograph with MS detector 5972A. We did not observe any correlation between current dietary intake of omega-3 FAs and their concentrations in human milk. However, we observed that the habitual intake of fatty fish affected omega-3 FA concentrations in human milk. Kendall’s rank correlation coefficients were 0.25 (p = 0.049) for DHA, 0.27 (p = 0.03) for EPA, and 0.28 (p = 0.02) for ALA. Beef consumption was negatively correlated with DHA concentrations in human milk (r = −0.25; p = 0.046). These findings suggest that current omega-3 FA intake does not translate directly into their concentration in human milk. On the contrary, their habitual intake seems to markedly influence their milk concentration.