Metal–organic framework is utilized as a confined-template for restrained nucleation and growth of Mo₂C electrocatalyst for highly efficient water splitting.

The preparation of tungsten oxide (WO₃) thin film by direct current (DC) reactive sputtering magnetron method and its photoelectrocatalytic properties for water oxidation reaction are investigated using ultraviolet-visible radiation. The structural, morphological, and compositional properties of WO₃ are fine-tuned by controlling thin film deposition time, and post-annealing temperature and environment. The findings suggest that the band gap of WO₃ can be controlled by adjusting the post-annealing temperature; the band gap decreased from 3.2 to 2.7 eV by increasing the annealing temperature from 100 to 600 °C. The theoretical calculations of the WO₃ bandgap and the density of state are performed by density functional theory (DFT). Following the band gap modification, the photoelectrocatalytic activity increased and the maximum photocurrent (0.9 mA/cm² at 0.6 V_SCE) is recorded with WO₃ film heated at 500 °C. The WO₃ film heated under air exhibits much better performance in photoelectrochemical water oxidation process than that of annealed under inert atmosphere, due to its structural variation. The change in sputtering time leads to the formation of WO₃ with varying film thickness, and the maximum photocurrent is observed when the film thickness is approximately 150 nm. The electrical conductivity and charge transfer resistance are measured and correlated to the properties and the performance of the WO₃ photoelectrodes. In addition, the WO₃ photoelectrode exhibits excellent photoelectrochemical stability.