Objective purpose: This review synthesized the literature examining the effects of virtual reality (VR)-based exercise on physiological, psychological, and rehabilitative outcomes in various populations. Design: A systematic review. Data sources: 246 articles were retrieved using key words, such as “VR”, “exercise intervention”, “physiological”, “psychology”, and “rehabilitation” through nine databases including Academic Search Premier and PubMed. Eligibility criteria for selecting studies: 15 articles which met the following criteria were included in the review: (1) peer-reviewed; (2) published in English; (3) randomized controlled trials (RCTs), controlled trials or causal-comparative design; (4) interventions using VR devices; and (5) examined effects on physiological, psychological, and/or rehabilitative outcomes. Descriptive and thematic analyses were used. Results: Of the 12 articles examining physiological outcomes, eight showed a positive effect on physical fitness, muscle strength, balance, and extremity function. Only four articles examined the effects on psychological outcomes, three showed positive effects such that VR exercise could ease fatigue, tension, and depression and induce calmness and enhance quality of life. Nine articles investigated the effects of VR-based exercise on rehabilitative outcomes with physiological and/or psychological outcomes, and six observed significant positive changes. In detail, patients who suffered from chronic stroke, hemodialysis, spinal-cord injury, cerebral palsy in early ages, and cognitive decline usually saw better improvements using VR-based exercise. Conclusion: The findings suggest that VR exercise has the potential to exert a positive impact on individual’s physiological, psychological, and rehabilitative outcomes compared with traditional exercise. However, the quality, quantity, and sample size of existing studies are far from ideal. Therefore, more rigorous studies are needed to confirm the observed positive effects.

In the modern knowledge economy, students often face the challenge of balancing academic responsibilities with physical activity, which may influence academic performance depending on the time and energy invested. Despite existing studies, there is still a lack of clarity regarding the impact of time and energy expenditure in physical activity on academic performance, especially in terms of how time is allocated between study and physical activity. To comprehensively investigate the relationship between physical activity and academic performance, the purpose of this study was to examine how time allocation and energy expenditure on physical activity influence university students’ academic success, a parallel mixed-methods research design. From a quantitative perspective, a questionnaire was conducted with 845 university students to measure physical activity duration, energy consumption, and GPA. From a qualitative perspective, 20 university students with a physical activity routine were selected as cases to discuss the impact of physical activity on academic performance. The quantitative findings underscore that physical activity does not significantly negatively impact university students’ academic performance. On the contrary, dedicating an appropriate amount of time and effort to physical activity may yield potential positive effects. Similarly, the qualitative results reinforce these benefits, indicating that engaging in physical activity promotes effective time management (e.g., time optimization and scheduling) and stress reduction, indirectly supporting academic success. Additionally, long-term participation in physical activity improves overall physical health and cognitive abilities, both of which are critical for academic achievement.