Background: Androgen receptor (AR) has been reported to play vital roles in exercise-induced increase of muscle mass in rats, but needs to be further verified and the mechanism behind remains unclear. As AR target genes, insulin growth factor-1 (IGF-1) and IGF-1 receptor (IGF-1R) promote muscle hypertrophy through activating PI3K/Akt- mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) pathway, a classic pathway of muscle hypertrophy. So the main purpose of this study was using AR antagonist flutamide to demonstrate AR’s effect on training-induced muscle hypertrophy and its possible mechanism: IGF-1/IGF-1R- PI3K/Akt- mTOR pathway? Methods: Forty-eight Sprague Dawley male rats aged 7 weeks were randomly divided into six groups: control (C), flutamide (F), resistance training (R), resistance training plus flutamide (R + F), endurance training (E), and endurance training plus flutamide (E + F) groups. Flutamide was used to block AR in rats. Rats in R and R + F groups fulfilled 3 weeks of ladder climbing with progressively increased load, while E and E + F rats completed 3-week moderate intensity aerobic exercise on a treadmill. The relative muscle mass (muscle mass/body weight) of rats was detected. Serum levels of testosterone and IGF-1 of rats were determined by ELISA, and mRNA levels of IGF-1R and mTOR in muscles by real-time PCR. Protein levels of AR, IGF-1, IGF-1R, mTOR, PI3K, Akt, p-PI3K and p-Akt in muscles were detected by Western blot. Results: (1) The training-induced rise in the relative muscle mass and the expression levels of AR were only found in the gastrocnemius of R rats and in the soleus of E rats (selective muscle hypertrophy), which were blocked by flutamide. (2) Serum testosterone in the R and E rat were increased, and flutamide exerted no effect. (3) The levels of IGF-1, IGF-1R and mTOR as well as the activities of PI3K and Akt were enhanced selectively (in the gastrocnemius of R rats and in the soleus of E rats), which were reduced by flutamide. Conclusions: AR exerted an essential role in both resistance training and endurance training-induced muscle hypertrophy, which was mediated at least partly through IGF-1/IGF-1R- PI3K/Akt- mTOR pathway.

Exercise training can lead to changes in the metabolic composition of an athlete’s blood, the magnitude of which depends largely on the intensity and duration of exercise. A variety of behavioral, biochemical, hormonal, and immunological biomarkers are commonly used to assess an athlete’s physical condition during exercise training. However, traditional invasive muscle biopsy testing methods are unable to comprehensively detect physiological differences and metabolic changes in the body. Metabolomics technology is a high-throughput, highly sensitive technique that provides a comprehensive assessment of changes in small molecule metabolites (molecular weight <1,500 Da) in the body. By measuring the overall metabolic characteristics of biological samples, we can study the changes of endogenous metabolites in an organism or cell at a certain moment in time, and investigate the interconnection and dynamic patterns between metabolites and physiological changes, thus further understanding the interactions between genes and the environment, and providing possibilities for biomarker discovery, precise training and nutritional programming of athletes. This paper summaries the progress of research on the application of exercise metabolomics in sports science, and looks forward to the future development of exercise metabolomics, with a view to providing new approaches and perspectives for improving human performance, promoting exercise against chronic diseases, and advancing sports science research.

Introduction: This study investigated the effects of FOOTBIKE exercise on mental health and executive function in university students, aiming to explore a novel exercise-based approach for mental health promotion in higher education settings. Methods: Sixty healthy undergraduate students from Shandong Sport University were randomly assigned to either an experimental group ( n = 30) or a control group ( i = 30). The experimental group completed an 8-week FOOTBIKE intervention consisting of three 60-min sessions per week, while the control group maintained routine activities and regular physical education classes. Pre- and post-intervention assessments utilized an AI-based physiological and psychological monitoring system, a 2-back working memory task, and a Go/No-Go inhibitory control task. Results: Following the FOOTBIKE exercise intervention, the experimental group exhibited significantly reduced anxiety and inhibition indices compared to the control group ( p < 0.05), together with significantly enhancing reaction capacity and stress resilience ( p < 0.05). Reaction times in both the 2-back working memory task and the Go/No-Go inhibitory control task were also significantly reduced after FOOTBIKE training ( p < 0.05), indicating improvements in cognitive processing efficiency and inhibitory control. There was a significant group 7 time interaction effect on the inhibition index, reaction times in the 2-back task, and reaction times in the Go/No-Go task. In contrast, no significant differences were observed in conventional physiological indicators or task accuracy, suggesting that the psychological benefits of FOOTBIKE exercise may be more closely related to cognitive and emotional regulatory adaptations than to general physiological conditioning alone. Furthermore, random forest analysis identified reaction speed, anxiety index, stress tolerance, and executive-function-related variables as important contributors distinguishing the experimental group after intervention, which was further supported by principal component analysis. Conclusion: FOOTBIKE exercise enhances mental health primarily through improvements in executive function, emotional regulation, cognitive responsiveness, and stress adaptation capacity. As a cognitively engaging, enjoyable, safe, and easily scalable form of physical activity, FOOTBIKE may represent a promising intervention strategy for university physical education curricula and mental health promotion programs.