Sustainable production refers to the production that meets the needs of the present, without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. At global level and mainly across Nigeria, rice fields are considered as one of the most important sources of atmospheric concentration of two greenhouse gases, mainly anthropogenic methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions. These greenhouse gases (GHGs) are produced under anaerobic conditions, and their production has negative environmental and health implications. Additionally, the growing demand for rice across Nigeria exceeds supply, resulting in a rice deficit. To overcome this challenge, rice production should be increased, with so much regard to less GHG emission. Moving forward, understanding the determinate of farmers’ mitigation strategies to GHGs will definitely enhance effort made for farmers to continue to mitigate easily over-time. Incidentally, empirical study on the present discourse is relatively scanty, isolated, and devoid of in-depth and quantitative analyses. Most empirical studies did not pay close attention to the determinants of rice farmers’ decisions to mitigation options to GHGs. Studies on mitigation of GHGs at a farm or household level should rigorously examine the socioeconomic characteristics that influence farmers’ decisions to practice GHG mitigation or not. These create a gap in research and make it extremely difficult if not impossible for the governments/interest groups to know the method they can adopt in helping farmers mitigate the negative impact of GHG emission in rice production. It was against this backdrop that this study was systematically undertaken.

Across Nigeria, while rice farmers are still battling the negative impact of climate change, the COVID-19 pandemic has brought a new risk that threatens not only farmers’ livelihoods but also the most important global food security crop “rice”. Every farming season, rice farmers face risks such as low rainfall, price volatility, and poor government policies. But the present risks from the COVID-19 pandemic are putting new challenges in front of rice value-chain that is already under serious threat. As a matter of urgency, farmers must respond to this new threat by choosing measures that increase their yield. Incidentally, empirical studies that documented the effect of COVID-19 pandemic on rice yield cannot be found as at the time of this study. These create emptiness in research. With this present threat, Nigeria is likely to experience a reversal in the development gains already achieved and will be unlikely to achieve the Agenda 2030 Goals.

In Nigeria, rice remains a major staple food source for the rapidly growing population of an estimated 210 million people. However, traditional rice production carried out in flooded soil is associated with greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, mainly anthropogenic methane (CH₄) and nitrous oxide (N2O) in Nigeria. Both CH4 and N2O are harmful GHGs that raise the temperature of the planet by retaining heat in the atmosphere. Reduction of GHG emissions is critical, and understanding farmers' knowledge of GHG emission mitigation strategies would be crucial to reducing emissions from rice fields and producing rice in a cleaner environment. Incidentally, there is a dearth of empirical evidence in the current debate. The absence of this study creates a gap in research and makes it extremely pertinent that the study be systematically undertaken. Our study described the socio-economic characteristics of the rice farmers and ascertained their knowledge level on GHG mitigation strategies. We utilized questionnaire and focused group discussion (FGD) as the primary methods of data collection. Descriptive statistics and mean score analysis were used to analyze the data collected. On average, we found that the rice farmers were 45 years old. Most (72%) were male. Only 31% of the farmers had contacted extension agents and were visited twice per calendar year. We found that among various GHG emission mitigation strategies identified in the area, the farmers had significant knowledge of the use of Aerobic Rice Varieties (ARV) (x̄ = 3.61; σ = 0.87) but low knowledge of the use of Alternate Wetting and Drying (AWD) (x̄ = 1.88; σ = 0.45). Our findings confirmed the incidence of GHG emissions in rice fields and that farmers have started practicing GHG mitigation strategies to reduce emissions from rice in the area. However, among various constraints, our study observed that inadequate technical know-how is negatively challenging rice farmers’ capacity to implement and scale-up GHG emissions mitigation strategies. Therefore, our study recommends that the government should strengthen and support agricultural extension service systems to enable them to visit farmers’ farms regularly to transmit and build farmers capacity in the use of recent GHG emission mitigation strategies and innovations in rice fields.

In Nigeria, climate change is not a new phenomenon and arable crop production is vulnerable to climate change. Arable crop farmers have always responded to climate change with local strategies believed to be climate-smart. Arable crop farmers' knowledge of climate change is an important step in understanding any action to be taken to reduce its effect. However, empirical studies on the link between climate change and crop farmers’ adaptation strategies are still relatively scanty in the area. This presents a dearth in research. Therefore, our paper examined how arable crop farmers adapt to climate change using cross-sectional data obtained through a structured focused group discussion and questionnaire from 120 arable farmers across critical farming communities in Imo State, Nigeria. We utilized multistage and purposive sampling procedure in the selection of arable crop farmers. The reason we utilized purposive sampling procedure was to select areas with high intensity of arable crop farmers and farming. Data collected was analyzed using descriptive statistical tools and mean (x̄) score analysis. Our result shows that the mean age was 42.00 years. Greater proportions (73.00%) were female. The average farm size was 1.45 hectares. Vegetables (100.00%), maize (99.17%), cassava (98.33%) and rice (96.67%) were among the crops produced in the area. The result confirmed the incidence of climate change in the area and farmers perceived rightly the direction of the change, which includes declining crop yields (x̄ = 3.00; σ = 0.50), increased in new pests and diseases infestation (x̄= 2.88; σ = 0.58); unstable decrease and increase in temperature and rainfall (x̄=3.63, σ = 0.83) among others. Our study further shows that the major climate change adaptation measures farmers practiced were diversification of livelihood (99.17%) and changing planting/harvesting dates (97.50%). Farmers identified inadequate information (99.17) and inadequate climate change adaptation fund (98.33%) among others as the barriers they faced in adapting to climate change in the area. We recommend that, since arable crop farmers are members of cooperatives, they are encouraged to take advantage of their strength to collectively project a common demand in obtaining funds and other necessary inputs in adapting to climate change in the area. Finally, our study also suggests that the agricultural extension service system should be strengthened so as to provide farmers with stable and right early warning signs which will be critical in minimizing risks of climatic threats in the area.

At global level, the use of inorganic feeds, veterinary drugs amongst others can significantly increase farm output in various livestock production systems. However, in recent times, quality-conscious consumers are increasingly seeking environmentally safe and chemical-residue free healthy livestock foods which organic production methods are said to ensure. Livestock Organic farming can offer promising opportunities for ensuring safe food, environmental sustainability, high livestock yield and income. Incidentally, empirical evidence on present discourse is still relatively very little. Although, a significant contribution has been made by various scholars, regrettably, these studies did not dwell on organic livestock practices and their knowledge level in South-east, Nigeria. Therefore, this presents a dearth in research and became increasingly pertinent that the study was systematically undertaken. A multistage and purposive random sampling procedure was used in the selection of 504 respondents who are organic livestock farmers. Data collected was analyzed using mean score analysis. Result shows that farmers had knowledge on practices of extensive system of livestock/poultry farming (X̄ =3.49); provision of natural air (X̄ =3.50); provision of natural water sprinkling during hot weather (X̄ =3.50); rearing animal without antibiotics (X̄ =3.56); and treating injured animals organically (X̄ =3.48) among others. Incidentally, majority of the livestock farmers lacked knowledge of how to induce ovulation for animals without drugs (X̄ =1.88). The inducement of ovulation for farm animals is one of the livestock organic methods used in forcing farm animals to come on heat/ovulation for quick multiplication. This method is harmful both for the animal an eventual consumer. Therefore, it is necessary that extension agents who are subject matter specialist (SMS) in livestock organic farming educate farmers on how to induce ovulation to farm animals organically with support from the government and farmers cooperative membership resources as these would significantly reduce harmful drugs injected to animal for quick ovulation and preserve the life span of the animal and consumers of the animal.