The present review provides detailed information on the adverse effects of MPs on wild marine organisms, including tissue damage, fish condition, oxidative stress, immune toxicity, and genotoxicity. A bibliometric analysis was carried out on CiteSpace (version 6.1.R3) (Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA, USA) to verify how many papers studied the effects on wild marine species. The results showed a total of 395 articles, but only 22 really presented data on the effects or impacts on marine biota, and of these, only 12 articles highlighted negative effects. This review shows that the observed effects in wild organisms were less severe and milder than those found in the experimental conditions. The knowledge of negative effects caused by direct ingestion of microplastics in wild animals is still limited; more efforts are necessary to fully understand the role of MPs and the adverse effects on wild marine organisms, the ecosystem, and human health.

Plastic litter is a global threat affecting all marine ecosystems. Utilizing digital media platforms like Google, Facebook, and Instagram we assessed the detrimental effects of marine plastic litter on the biodiversity of the Italian marine ecosystem. We noted that marine plastic litter had adverse consequences on marine reptiles, mammals, sea birds, fish, crustaceans, and mollusks, including endangered and vulnerable marine species. The loggerhead sea turtle (Caretta caretta) was the most recorded species found entangled in plastic litter. Our investigation revealed that abandoned, lost, or otherwise discarded fishing gear are the primary contributors to the entanglement of numerous marine species. The current study represents a preliminary step towards establishing databases that document records of entanglement, which may be useful in adopting new conservation measures in the Mediterranean geographical subareas. Our results emphasize the critical need for collaborative efforts among all stakeholders and policymakers to effectively manage marine plastic litter.