Hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF) is a transcriptional regulator that plays a key role in many aspects of oxygen homeostasis. The heterodimeric HIF complex is regulated by proteolysis of its α-subunits, following oxygen-dependent hydroxylation of specific prolyl residues. Although three HIF prolyl hydroxylases, PHD1, PHD2, and PHD3, have been identified that have the potential to catalyze this reaction, the contribution of each isoform to the physiological regulation of HIF remains uncertain. Here we show using suppression by small interference RNA that each of the three PHD isoforms contributes in a non-redundant manner to the regulation of both HIF-1α and HIF-2α subunits and that the contribution of each PHD under particular culture conditions is strongly dependent on the abundance of the enzyme. Thus in different cell types, isoform-specific patterns of PHD induction by hypoxia and estrogen alter both the relative abundance of the PHDs and their relative contribution to the regulation of HIF. In addition, the PHDs manifest specificity for different prolyl hydroxylation sites within each HIF-α subunit, and a degree of selectively between HIF-1α and HIF-2α isoforms, indicating that differential PHD inhibition has the potential to selectively alter the characteristics of HIF activation.

Background: Exosomes are nanovesicles secreted by tumour cells which have roles in paracrine signalling during tumour progression, including tumour-stromal interactions, activation of proliferative pathways and bestowing immunosuppression. Hypoxia is an important feature of solid tumours which promotes tumour progression, angiogenesis and metastasis, potentially through exosome-mediated signalling. Methods: Breast cancer cell lines were cultured under either moderate (1% O₂) or severe (0.1% O₂) hypoxia. Exosomes were isolated from conditioned media and quantitated by nanoparticle tracking analysis (NTA) and immunoblotting for the exosomal protein CD63 in order to assess the impact of hypoxia on exosome release. Hypoxic exosome fractions were assayed for miR-210 by real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction and normalised to exogenous and endogenous control genes. Statistical significance was determined using the Student T test with a P value of < 0.05 considered significant. Results: Exposure of three different breast cancer cell lines to moderate (1% O₂) and severe (0.1% O₂) hypoxia resulted in significant increases in the number of exosomes present in the conditioned media as determined by NTA and CD63 immunoblotting. Activation of hypoxic signalling by dimethyloxalylglycine, a hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF) hydroxylase inhibitor, resulted in significant increase in exosome release. Transfection of cells with HIF-1α siRNA prior to hypoxic exposure prevented the enhancement of exosome release by hypoxia. The hypoxically regulated miR-210 was identified to be present at elevated levels in hypoxic exosome fractions. Conclusions: These data provide evidence that hypoxia promotes the release of exosomes by breast cancer cells, and that this hypoxic response may be mediated by HIF-1α. Given an emerging role for tumour cell-derived exosomes in tumour progression, this has significant implications for understanding the hypoxic tumour phenotype, whereby hypoxic cancer cells may release more exosomes into their microenvironment to promote their own survival and invasion.

Recent studies of tissue culture cells have defined a widespread system of oxygen-regulated gene expression based on the activation of a heterodimeric transcription factor termed hypoxia-inducible factor-1 (HIF-1). To determine whether the HIF-1 transcriptional response is activated within solid tumors and to define the consequences, we have studied tumor xenografts of a set of hepatoma (Hepa-1) cells that are wild type (wt), deficient (c4), and revertant (Rc4) for an obligatory component of the HIF-1 heterodimer, HIF-1β. Because HIF-1β is also essential for the xenobiotic response (in which it is termed the aryl hydrocarbon receptor nuclear translocator), we also studied c31 cells, which have a different defect in the xenobiotic response and form the HIF-1 complex normally. Two genes that show different degrees of HIF-1-dependent hypoxia-inducible expression in cell culture were selected for analysis—the glucose transporter, GLUT3, and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). In situ hybridization showed intense focal induction of gene expression in tumors derived from wt, Rc4, and c31 cells, which was reduced (VEGF) or not seen (GLUT3) in those derived from c4 cells. In association with these changes, tumors of c4 cells had reduced vascularity and grew more slowly. These findings show that HIF-1 activation occurs in hypoxic regions of tumors and demonstrate a major influence on gene expression, tumor angiogenesis, and growth.

Activity of the hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF) complex is controlled by oxygen-dependent hydroxylation of prolyl and asparaginyl residues. Hydroxylation of specific prolyl residues by 2-oxoglutarate (2-OG)-dependent oxygenases mediates ubiquitinylation and proteasomal destruction of HIF-α. Hydroxylation of an asparagine residue in the C-terminal transactivation domain (CAD) of HIF-α abrogates interaction with p300, preventing transcriptional activation. Yeast two-hybrid assays recently identified factor inhibiting HIF (FIH) as a protein that associates with the CAD region of HIF-α. Since FIH contains certain motifs present in iron- and 2-OG-dependent oxygenases we investigated whether FIH was the HIF asparaginyl hydroxylase. Assays using recombinant FIH and HIF-α fragments revealed that FIH is the enzyme that hydroxylates the CAD asparagine residue, that the activity is directly inhibited by cobalt(II) and limited by hypoxia, and that the oxygen in the alcohol of the hydroxyasparagine residue is directly derived from dioxygen. Sequence analyses involving FIH link the 2-OG oxygenases with members of the cupin superfamily, including Zn(II)-utilizing phosphomannose isomerase, revealing structural and evolutionary links between these metal-binding proteins that share common motifs.

Purpose: MicroRNA (miRNA) expression alterations have been described in cancer. Many cancers are characterized by areas of hypoxia, enhanced hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF) levels, and increased expression of hypoxically regulated genes, all of which correlate with patient outcome. We examined hypoxia-induced miRNA expression changes to identify markers of survival in breast cancer. Experimental Design: We used microarrays to analyze miRNA expression changes induced by hypoxia in MCF7 breast cancer cell lines and validated results by quantitative-PCR (Q-PCR). Small interfering RNA against HIF-1α and HIF-2α, and RCC4 cells transfected with the von Hippel-Lindau (VHL) protein were used to investigate HIF dependency of miRNA expression. miRNA Q-PCR assays were done on 219 early breast cancer samples with long-term follow-up. Correlation of expression with clinical variables was done using Pearson and Spearman's rank tests, univariate, and Cox multivariate analysis. Results: hsa-miR-210 induction was the most significant change under hypoxia by microarray analysis (3.4-fold, P < 0.001). hsa-miR-210 expression changes were validated by Q-PCR and detected in other cancer cell lines. Using small interfering RNAs and RCC4 cells transfected with VHL, we showed that the regulation by hypoxia of hsa-miR-210 was mediated by the HIF-1α/VHL transcriptional system but not HIF-2α. hsa-miR-210 expression levels in breast cancer samples correlated directly with a hypoxia score based on the expression of 99 genes. hsa-miR-210 expression levels showed an inverse correlation with disease-free and overall survival, significant in both univariate and multivariate analyses. Conclusions: We show that hsa-miR-210 overexpression is induced by hypoxia in a HIF-1α– and VHL-dependent fashion and its expression levels in breast cancer samples are an independent prognostic factor.