The prolonged lockdown imposed to contain the COrona VIrus Disease 19 COVID-19 pandemic prevented many people from direct contact with nature and greenspaces, raising alarms for a possible worsening of mental health. This study investigated the effectiveness of a simple and affordable remedy for improving psychological well-being, based on audio-visual stimuli brought by a short computer video showing forest environments, with an urban video as a control. Randomly selected participants were assigned the forest or urban video, to look at and listen to early in the morning, and questionnaires to fill out. In particular, the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) Form Y collected in baseline condition and at the end of the study and the Part II of the Sheehan Patient Rated Anxiety Scale (SPRAS) collected every day immediately before and after watching the video. The virtual exposure to forest environments showed effective to reduce perceived anxiety levels in people forced by lockdown in limited spaces and environmental deprivation. Although significant, the effects were observed only in the short term, highlighting the limitation of the virtual experiences. The reported effects might also represent a benchmark to disentangle the determinants of health effects due to real forest experiences, for example, the inhalation of biogenic volatile organic compounds (BVOC).

Cognitive control is a critical feature in adapting our behavior to environmental and internal demands with two types of inhibition having been identified, namely the proactive and the reactive. Aiming to shed light on their respective neural correlates, we decided to focus on the cerebral activity before or after presentation of the target demanding a subject’s stop as a way to separate the proactive from the reactive components associated with the tasks. Accordingly, we performed three Activation Likelihood Estimation (ALE) meta-analyses of fMRI studies exploring proactive and reactive inhibitory phases of cognitive control. For this purpose, we searched for fMRI studies investigating brain activity preceding or following target stimuli. Eight studies (291 subjects, 101 foci) were identified for the proactive analysis. Five of these studies and those previously analyzed by others (348 subjects, 199 foci) were meta-analyzed to explore the neural correlates of reactive inhibition. Overall, our results showed different networks for the two inhibitory components. Notably, we observed a contiguity between areas in the right inferior frontal gyrus pertaining to proactive inhibition and in the right middle frontal gyrus regarding reactive inhibition. These neural correlates allow proposal of a new comprehensive model of cognitive control.

Convergent studies corroborated the idea that the right prefrontal cortex is the crucial brain region responsible for inhibiting our actions. However, which sub-regions of the right prefrontal cortex are involved is still a matter of debate. To map the inhibitory function of the sub-regions of the right prefrontal cortex, we performed Activation Likelihood Estimation (ALE) meta-analyses and meta-regressions (ES-SDM) of fMRI studies exploring inhibitory control. Sixty-eight studies (1684 subjects, 912 foci) were identified and divided in three groups depending on the incremental demand. Overall, our results showed that higher was the inhibitory demand based on the individual differences in performances, more the upper portion of the right prefrontal cortex was activated to achieve a successful inhibition. Conversely, a lower demand of the inhibitory function, was associated with the inferior portions of the right prefrontal cortex recruitment. Notably, in the latter case, we also observed activation of areas associated with working memory and responsible for cognitive strategies.

Response inhibition relies on both proactive and reactive mechanisms that exert a synergic control on goal-directed actions. It is typically evaluated by the go/no-go (GNG) and the stop signal task (SST) with response recording based on the key-press method. However, the analysis of discrete variables (i.e., present or absent responses) registered by key-press could be insufficient to capture dynamic aspects of inhibitory control. Trying to overcome this limitation, in the present study we used a mouse tracking procedure to characterize movement profiles related to proactive and reactive inhibition. A total of fifty-three participants performed a cued GNG and an SST. The cued GNG mainly involves proactive control whereas the reactive component is mainly engaged in the SST. We evaluated the velocity profile from mouse trajectories both for responses obtained in the Go conditions and for inhibitory failures. Movements were classified as one-shot when no corrections were observed. Multi-peaked velocity profiles were classified as non-one-shot. A higher proportion of one-shot movements was found in the SST compared to the cued GNG when subjects failed to inhibit responses. This result suggests that proactive control may be responsible for unsmooth profiles in inhibition failures, supporting a differentiation between these tasks.

The dual-process theory of thought rests on the co-existence of two different thinking modalities: a quick, automatic, and associative process opposed to a slow, thoughtful, and deliberative process. The increasing interest in determining the neural foundation of the dual-process distinction has yielded mixed results, also given the difficulty of applying the fMRI standard approach to tasks usually employed in the cognitive literature. We report an activation likelihood estimation (ALE) meta-analysis to investigate the neural foundation of the dual-process theory of thought. Eligible studies allowed for the identification of cerebral areas associated with dual-process theory-based tasks without differentiating between fast and slow thinking. The ALE algorithm converged on the medial frontal cortex, superior frontal cortex, anterior cingulate cortex, insula, and left inferior frontal gyrus. These structures partially overlap with the cerebral areas recurrently reported in the literature about the neural basis of the dual-process distinction, where the PARCS theory-based interpretation emphasizes the role of the right inferior gyrus. The results confirm the potential (but still almost unexplored) common ground between the dual-process literature and the cognitive control literature.