Transmucosal drug delivery includes the administration of drugs via various mucous membranes, such as gastrointestinal, nasal, ocular, and vaginal mucosa. The use of nanoparticles in transmucosal drug delivery has several advantages, including the protection of drugs against the harsh environment of the mucosal lumens and surfaces, increased drug residence time, and enhanced drug absorption. Due to their relatively simple synthetic methods for preparation, safety profile, and possibilities of surface functionalisation, silica nanoparticles are highly promising for transmucosal drug delivery. This review provides a description of silica nanoparticles and outlines the preparation methods for various core and surface-functionalised silica nanoparticles. The relationship between the functionalities of silica nanoparticles and their interactions with various mucous membranes are critically analysed. Applications of silica nanoparticles in transmucosal drug delivery are also discussed.

There is limited descriptive data on excipient use in oral antibiotic suspensions; this study provides a novel evaluation of commonly used excipients and their formulation rationale. A total of 41 suspensions representing nine antibiotic types were analyzed using patient information leaflets. The frequency of each excipient class was determined, and associations between suspending agents or preservatives and antibiotic classes were assessed. Selected qualitative safety concerns related to the listed excipients were identified. Amoxicillin/clavulanate was the most frequently represented antibiotic. Excipient details were available in 31 products, while 10 lacked disclosure. Xanthan gum, sodium benzoate, sucrose, titanium dioxide, and strawberry flavor were the most commonly used suspending agent, preservative, sweetener, colorant, and flavoring agent, respectively. Combinations of suspending agents, particularly xanthan gum with colloidal silicon dioxide, were common, whereas preservative combinations were rare. A significant association was observed between the type of suspending agent and the antibiotic class (p < 0.001), as well as between preservative type and antibiotic class (p = 0.001). The findings highlight formulation patterns, safety concerns, and transparency issues, providing novel insights to support safer pharmaceutical products and guide regulatory practice.

This study developed itraconazole-loaded solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) to enhance the solubility of this poorly water-soluble antifungal drug and evaluate key physicochemical properties. SLNs were prepared using the microemulsion technique with solid lipids stearic acid, palmitic acid, and myristic acid, and surfactants Tween 80 and Pluronic F127. The synthesized SLNs were characterized using dynamic light scattering (DLS) and electrophoretic light scattering (ELS) for size and zeta potential determination, while transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM) were employed to examine surface morphology. Furthermore, the structural and thermal properties of the formulation were analyzed via Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction (XRD), and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). Among the formulations, SLN3 (containing stearic acid–Pluronic F127) and SLN9 (containing myristic acid–Tween 80) exhibited the smallest particle sizes and lowest polydispersity indices. Encapsulation efficiency was 97.04 ± 0.004 % for SLN3 and 42.69 ± 0.02 % for SLN9, with drug loading capacities of 3 ± 0.1 % and 1.8 ± 0.17 %, and yields of 50.03 ± 3.55 % and 57.9 ± 6.6 %, respectively. Solubility of ITZ increased to 2900 µg/mL (SLN3) and 3369 µg/mL (SLN9). In vitro release studies demonstrated controlled and sustained drug release, with SLNs exhibiting formulation- and pH-dependent behavior; SLN3 provided more prolonged release under acidic conditions, whereas SLN9 showed relatively higher release at intestinal pH, reflecting differences in lipid chain length and surfactant type. These results indicate that the optimized SLNs improve ITZ solubility and exhibit favorable physicochemical characteristics, supporting their potential as oral delivery systems for poorly soluble antifungal agents.

Background: Itraconazole (ITZ) is a potent antifungal drug limited by poor water solubility and systemic side effects when taken orally. Topical administration offers a safer approach; however, efficient penetration through the stratum corneum remains a challenge. Objective: To develop and optimize ITZ-loaded PLGA nanoparticles (NPs) by investigating the effects of polymer type (PLGA 50:50 and 75:25) and stabilizers (Tween-80 and PVA) on the NPs size, PDI, and zeta potential, and to evaluate in vitro drug release of free ITZ and NPs. Methods: NPs were prepared by the nanoprecipitation method and were characterized using DLS for particle size, PDI, and zeta potential; FTIR spectroscopy for confirmation of drug encapsulation; FESEM and TEM for morphological assessment; and in vitro drug release studies. Results: All NP formulations were in the nano-size range. The optimal formulation, containing PLGA 75:25 and 1% Tween-80, had the smallest particle size and lowest PDI, with an encapsulation efficiency of 54.74%, a drug loading capacity of 8.46%, and a yield of 58.77%. FTIR spectroscopy confirmed successful incorporation of ITZ into the PLGA matrix, whereas FESEM and TEM revealed smooth, spherical NPs with uniform distribution and no aggregation. In vitro drug release studies of the NPs demonstrated a biphasic profile: an initial burst followed by a controlled release, as opposed to the rapid release of free ITZ. Conclusions: The NPs were successfully prepared. The optimized ITZ-loaded PLGA nanoparticles showed favorable physicochemical characteristics, efficient encapsulation, and controlled drug release, highlighting potential as a topical delivery system for antifungal therapy.