Contamination of fresh vegetables and berries with human enteric viruses is a major cause of food poisoning. The aim of this study was to investigate the prevalence of norovirus GI, norovirus GII, hepatitis A virus (HAV), adenovirus, astrovirus, rotavirus, and male-specific coliphage systematically in fresh fruit and vegetables and associated agricultural environmental samples, including irrigation water, soil, and worker's gloves. Enteric viruses were detected by international standard methods (ISO/TS 15216), and male-specific coliphages were isolated using US EPA Method 1601. For the study, 773 samples were collected from June 2016 to April 2017, including Chinese cabbage ( n = 244), cucumber ( n = 98), lettuce ( n = 73), strawberry ( n = 120), soil ( n = 191), irrigation water ( n = 14), and gloves ( n = 27). Two cucumber and two irrigation water samples were positive for norovirus GI, and one cucumber and two irrigation water samples were positive for norovirus GII. HAV was detected in one strawberry sample and one glove sample. The other tested foodborne viruses were not detected in any of the samples. Sixteen male-specific coliphages were isolated from Chinese cabbage, cucumber, lettuce, cherry tomato, soil, and irrigation water. The isolation of male-specific coliphage would be more practical to investigate the fecal contamination in produce rather than pathogenic viruses.

Infection by hepatitis E virus (HEV) via the oral route causes acute hepatitis. Extra-hepatic manifestations of HEV infection may stem from various causes; however, its distribution in organs such as the liver, as well as the mechanisms underlying HEV-induced cell injury, remain unclear. The objective of this study was to determine the chronological distribution of HEV in various tissues of HEV-challenged miniature pigs and to investigate the mechanisms underlying HEV-induced cell death in the pancreas and liver. Virological and serological analyses were performed on blood and faecal samples. Histopathology of the liver and extra-hepatic tissues was analysed. Cell death pathways and immune cell characterisation in inflammatory lesions were analysed using immunohistochemistry. The liver and pancreas displayed inflammation and cellular injury, and a large amount of HEV was observed in the lesions. The liver was infiltrated by T and natural killer cells. HEV was identified in all organs except the heart, and was associated with immune cells. Although the liver and the pancreas strongly expressed TNF-α and TRAIL, TUNEL assay results were negative. RIP3 and pMLKL were expressed in the pancreas. RIP3, but not pMLKL, was expressed in the liver. Pancreatitis induced in HEV-infected miniature pigs is associated with necroptosis.