The aim of this study was to select the optimal conditions for the carbonization process followed by surface modification treatment with sodium hydroxide (NaOH) to obtain a highly microporous activated carbon structure derived from palm kernel shells (PKS) and coconut shells (CS). The effects of the carbonization temperature and NaOH concentration on the physiochemical properties, adsorption capability, specific surface area, surface morphology, and surface chemistry of PKS and CS were evaluated in this study. The results show that surface-modified activated carbons presented higher surface area values (CS: 356.87 m² g⁻¹, PKS: 427.64 m² g⁻¹), smaller pore size (CS: 2.24 nm, PKS: 1.99 nm), and larger pore volume (CS: 0.34 cm³ g⁻¹, PKS: 0.30 cm³ g⁻¹) than the untreated activated carbon, demonstrating that the NaOH surface modification was efficient enough to improve the surface characteristics of the activated carbon. Moreover, surface modification via 25% NaOH greatly increases the active functional group of activated carbon, thereby directly increasing the adsorption capability of activated carbon (CS: 527.44 mg g⁻¹, PKS: 627.03 mg g⁻¹). By applying the NaOH post-treatment as the ultimate surface modification technique to the activated carbon derived from PKS and CS, a highly microporous structure was produced.

In the present study, agricultural biomass—palm kernel shell (PKS) and coconut shell (CS)—was used to produce high porosity bioadsorbent using two-stage continuous physical activation method with different gas carrier (air and N ₂ ) in each stage. The activation temperature was set constant at 600, 700, 800 or 900°C for both activation stages with the heating rate of 3°C min ⁻¹ . Two parameters, the gas carrier and activation temperature, were determined as the significant factors on the adsorption properties of bioadsorbent. BET, SEM, FTIR, TGA, CHNS/O and ash content were used to elucidate the developed bioadsorbent prepared from PKS and CS and its capacity towards the adsorption of methylene blue and iodine. The novel process of two-stage continuous physical activation method was able to expose mesopores and micropores that were previously covered/clogged in nature, and simultaneously create new pores. The synthesized bioadsorbents showed that the surface area (PKS: 456.47 m ² g ⁻¹ , CS: 479.17 m ² g ⁻¹ ), pore size (PKS: 0.63 nm, CS: 0.62 nm) and pore volume (PKS: 0.13 cm ³ g ⁻¹ , CS: 0.15 cm ³ g ⁻¹ ) were significantly higher than that of non-treated bioadsorbent. The surface morphology of the raw materials and synthesized bioadsorbent were accessed by SEM. Furthermore, the novel process meets the recent industrial adsorbent requirements such as low activation temperature, high fixed carbon content, high yield, high adsorption properties and high surface area, which are the key factors for large-scale production of bioadsorbent and its usage.

Global energy sectors are facing the crucial challenge of sustainability and diversification of energy resources. Seeking renewable resources with a sustainable supply is therefore a matter of the utmost concern. In this respect, bamboo, a renewable lignocellulosic material and non-food biomass, has great potential to be utilized to produce energy. Several studies have been conducted on a wide range of bamboo species and the results have shown that bamboo could potentially be used as a suitable fuel because it shares desirable fuel characteristics present in other woody biomass. Bamboo can be used as an energy source by converting it into solid, liquid, and gaseous fuels. However, to utilize bamboo as a high promise energy crop resource for biofuels, a secure and stable supply is required. Therefore, additional information on the availability, cultivation, and harvesting operations of bamboo is vital to ensure the practicability of the idea. The objective of this review is to highlight the potential of bamboo as an alternative source of bioenergy production, particularly in a Malaysian context, with emphasis on the concepts, pretreatment, and conversion technologies.

The production of bioadsorbent from palm kernel shell (PKS) and coconut shell (CS) pretreated with 30% phosphoric acid (H ₃ PO ₄ ) was optimized using the response surface methodology (RSM). Iodine adsorption for both bioadsorbents was optimized by central composite design. Two parameters including the H ₃ PO ₄ pretreatment temperature and carbonization temperature were determined as significant factors to improve the iodine adsorption of the bioadsorbent. Statistical analysis results divulge that both factors had significant effect on the iodine adsorption for the bioadsorbent. From the RSM analysis, it was suggested that using 80 and 79°C as H ₃ PO ₄ pretreatment temperature and 714 and 715°C as carbonization temperature would enhance the iodine adsorption of the CS and PKS bioadsobent, respectively. These results indicated that H ₃ PO ₄ is a good pretreatment for preparing PKS and CS prior to carbonization process to produce bioadsorbent with well-developed microporous and mesoporous volume. The effort to produce alternative high grade and inexpensive adsorbent derived from lignocellulosic biomass, particularly in the nut shell form was implied in this research.

Latex production from Hevea brasiliensis rubber tree is the second most important commodity in Malaysia, but this industry is threatened by the white root rot disease (WRD) caused by Rigidoporus microporus that leads to considerable latex yield loss and tree death. This study aimed to characterize and compare the virulence of five R. microporus isolates obtained from infected rubber trees located at different states in Malaysia. These isolates were subjected to morphological and molecular characterization for species confirmation and pathogenicity test for the determination of virulence level. BLAST search showed that the ITS sequences of all the pathogen isolates were 99% identical to R. microporus isolate SEG (accession number: MG199553) from Malaysia. The pathogenicity test of R. microporus isolates conducted in a nursery with 24 seedlings per isolate showed that isolate RL21 from Sarawak has developed the most severe above- and below-ground symptoms of WRD on the rubber clone RRIM600 as host. Six months after being infected with R. microporus, RL21 was evaluated with the highest average of disease severity index of 80.52% for above- and below-ground symptoms, followed by RL22 (68.65%), RL20 (66.04%), RL26 (54.38%), and RL25 (43.13%). The in vitro growth condition tests showed that isolate RL21 of R. microporus has optimum growth at 25–30 °C, with the preference of weakly acidic to neutral environments (pH 6–7). This study revealed that different virulence levels are possessed among different R. microporus isolates even though they were isolated from the same host species under the same climate region. Taken together, field evaluation through visual observation and laboratory assays have led to screening of the most virulent isolate. Determination of the most virulent isolate in the present study is vital and shall be taken into consideration for the selection of suitable pathogen isolate in the development of more effective control measures in combating tenacious R. microporus.

White root disease caused by Rigidoporus microporus is the most devastating disease in majority of the rubber growing countries, including Malaysia. This study aimed to screen and decipher the mechanisms involved in the biocontrol agents responsible for the inhibition of R. microporus. Among 16 fungal isolates, Trichoderma spp. showed promising results with the highest percent of inhibition shown by Trichoderma asperellum (80.54%). Scanning electron microscopy study revealed coiling of hyphae by Trichoderma species against R. microporus. T. asperellum has demonstrated a maximum inhibition in both volatile and non-volatile metabolite tests with its 75% culture filtrate on PDA plate was observed to cause abnormal morphological character in R. microporus. All Trichoderma species were shown to produce hydrolytic enzymes (chitinase, cellulase and β-1,3-glucanase) and they were active siderophore producers. Present study demonstrated the possible mechanisms involved and responsible for successful inhibition of R. microporus under in vitro condition especially by T. asperellum.