The amygdala is one of the most discussed structures of the brain. Correlations between its level of activity, size, biochemical organization, and various pathologies are the subject of many studies, and can serve as a marker of existing or future disease. It is hypothesized that the amygdala is not just a structural unit, but includes many other regions in the brain. In this review, we present the updated neuroanatomical and physiological aspects of the amygdala, discussing its involvement in neurodegenerative and neurological diseases. The amygdala plays an important role in the processing of input signals and behavioral synthesis. Lesions in the amygdala have been shown to cause neurological disfunction of ranging severity. Abnormality in the amygdala leads to conditions such as depression, anxiety, autism, and also promotes biochemical and physiological imbalance. The amygdala collects pathological proteins, and this fact can be considered to play a big role in the progression and diagnosis of many degenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer’s disease, chronic traumatic encephalopathy, Lewy body diseases, and hippocampal sclerosis. The amygdala has shown to play a crucial role as a central communication system in the brain, therefore understanding its neuroanatomical and physiological features can open a channel for targeted therapy of neurodegenerative diseases.

Locus coeruleus is a small bilateral nucleus in the brainstem. It is the main source of norepinephrine (noradrenaline) throughout the central nervous system (about 70% of all norepinephrine in the central nervous system), and, as shown in numerous studies, it is involved in regulating a significant number of functions. The detailed study of the functions of the Locus Coeruleus (LC) and its significance in human life became possible only after the development of histofluorescence methods for monoamines in the 1960s. The widespread locus coeruleus-norepinephrine (LC-NE) projection system regulates the entire central nervous system and modulates sensory processing, motor behavior, arousal, and cognitive processes. Damage to the LC and the associated decrease in norepinephrine levels are involved in a wide range of clinical conditions and pathological processes. Although much about the anatomy and physiology of the LC is currently known, its ultimate role in the regulation of behavior, control of the sleep-wake cycle, stress response, and the development of pathological conditions (such as Alzheimer’s disease, dementia, depression, suicidal behavior, chronic traumatic encephalopathy, and Parkinson’s disease) is not fully understood. Non-invasive visualization of the LC can be used for differential diagnosis, determining the stage of the disease, and predicting its course. Studying the dysfunction of the LC-norepinephrine system, involved in the pathogenesis of various neurological diseases, may ultimately form the basis for the development of new treatment methods based on the pharmacological elevation of norepinephrine levels. In this review, we will attempt to highlight the key points regarding the structure and function of the Locus Coeruleus, as well as outline the main directions and prospects for its study.

The subarachnoid lymphatic-like membrane (SLYM), identified through neuroimaging and molecular biology, is an extremely thin fourth subarachnoid meningeal layer that envelops blood vessels within the subarachnoid space. It performs critical functions including immune cell regulation, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) flow modulation, brain protection, and lubrication. All components of the central nervous system (CNS) drainage system – interstitial fluid, perivascular spaces, CSF, meningeal lymphatic vessels, and cervical lymph nodes – operate in close coordination, providing not only waste and toxin removal from the brain, but also maintaining homeostasis essential for normal neuronal function. SLYM, as part of this complex system, plays a role in transporting and filtering cells and molecules, contributing to the regulation of the CNS immune response. It forms a sheath around the brain through which only very small molecules can pass, thereby separating "clean" CSF from "dirty" CSF.SLYM may be involved in processes associated with neuroinflammation and neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer’s disease and multiple sclerosis, potentially opening new avenues for treatment and understanding of the mechanisms underlying immune responses in the CNS. The revised understanding of the critical role of the meninges in brain function regulation, their interaction with other drainage system components, and the role of SLYM as a new selective barrier involved in compartmentalizing the subarachnoid space offer a new perspective on neurological disorders and create opportunities for regenerative therapies targeting neurodegenerative diseases.

ОБОСНОВАНИЕ Пластика клапанов сердца аутоперикардом позволяет восстановить нормальные показатели гемодинамики у пациентов с клапанной патологией сердца с помощью своих нативных тканей, не вызывающих реакций в организме и менее подверженных биодеградации, а также избавляющих пациента от длительного приема антикоагулянтов. В данной статье приведен метод расчета высоты и длины створок митрального клапана (МК), который в перспективе может применяться при пластических реконструктивных вмешательствах на данном атриовертрикулярном клапане сердца. Для этого был проведен статистический анализ нормальных размеров МК на аутопсийном материале и описаны методы математического моделирования, применяемые для создания трафаретов, необходимых для выкраивания створок и первичных (краевых) хорд из аутоперикарда во время реконструкции. ЦЕЛЬ ИССЛЕДОВАНИЯ Разработка пилотной версии универсальной математической модели определения размеров створок МК и первичных хорд для реконструкции МК на основании аутопсийного материала. МАТЕРИАЛ И МЕТОДЫ Проанализировано 21 сердце после аутопсии людей, умерших в возрасте от 25 до 68 лет от некардиальных причин, с подсчетом размеров и взаиморасположения клапанного аппарата и подклапанных структур. После этого была проведена обработка с помощью статистического пакета IBM SPSS Statistics 23.0. При анализе данных были использованы критерий Краскела—Уоллиса, расчет коэффициента корреляции Пирсона и построение линейной регрессии. Критериями исключения из исследования явились смерть от кардиальных причин, анамнез заболевания сердца, проведенное ранее кардиохирургическое вмешательство, детский возраст. РЕЗУЛЬТАТЫ Представлена математическая модель строения МК сердца, основанная на известном диаметре фиброзного кольца клапана, и получены формулы для вычисления размеров створок, а также первичных хорд. После вычисления размеров створок их необходимо нарисовать на поверхности подготовленного заранее листка перикарда, прибавив к границам створки 2 мм (поправка на наложение шва). Вычисления нуждаются в экспериментальном подтверждении. ЗАКЛЮЧЕНИЕ Изучение топографо-анатомических соотношений строения МК имеет большое практическое значение в реконструктивных операциях как на клапанном аппарате сердца при повреждениях створок и подклапанных структур, так и при необходимости полной замены клапана.