Allopolyploidy is a significant evolutionary process, resulting in new species with diploid or greater chromosome complements derived from two or more progenitor species. We examined the chromosomal consequences of genomic merger in Arabidopsis suecica , the allotetraploid hybrid of Arabidopsis thaliana and Arabidopsis arenosa . Fluorescence in situ hybridization with centromere, nucleolus organizer region (NOR), and 5S rRNA gene probes reveals the expected numbers of progenitor chromosomes in natural A . suecica , but one pair of A . thaliana NORs and one pair of A . arenosa -derived 5S gene loci are missing. Similarly, in newly formed synthetic A . suecica -like allotetraploids, pairs of A . thaliana NORs are gained de novo , lost, and/or transposed to A . arenosa chromosomes, with genotypic differences apparent between F ₃ siblings of the same F ₂ parent and between independent lines. Likewise, pairs of A . arenosa 5S genes are lost and novel linkages between 5S loci and NORs arise in synthetic allotetraploids. By contrast, the expected numbers of A . arenosa -derived NORs and A . thaliana -derived 5S loci are found in both natural and synthetic A . suecica . Collectively, these observations suggest that some, but not all, loci are unstable in newly formed A . suecica allotetraploids and can participate in a variety of alternative rearrangements, some of which resemble chromosomal changes found in nature.

Nucleolar dominance describes the silencing of one parental set of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) genes in a genetic hybrid, an epigenetic phenomenon that occurs on a scale second only to X-chromosome inactivation in mammals. An RNA interference (RNAi) knockdown screen revealed that the predicted Arabidopsis histone deacetylase, HDA6, is required for rRNA gene silencing in nucleolar dominance. In vivo, derepression of silenced rRNA genes upon knockdown of HDA6 is accompanied by nucleolus organizer region (NOR) decondensation, loss of promoter cytosine methylation, and replacement of histone H3 Lys 9 (H3K9) dimethylation with H3K4 trimethylation, H3K9 acetylation, H3K14 acetylation, and histone H4 tetra-acetylation. Consistent with these in vivo results, purified HDA6 deacetylates lysines modified by histone acetyltransferases whose substrates include H3K14, H4K5, and H4K12. HDA6 localizes, in part, to the nucleolus, supporting a model whereby HDA6 erases histone acetylation as a key step in an epigenetic switch mechanism that silences rRNA genes through concerted histone and DNA modifications.

Supernumerary B chromosomes (Bs) are a major source of intraspecific variation in nuclear DNA amounts in numerous species of plants. They favour large genomes, and create polymorphisms for DNA variation in natural populations. By studying Bs we can gain useful knowledge about the organization, function and evolution of genomes. There are also significant biological questions concerning the origin and structural organization of Bs, and the way in which these selfish elements can establish themselves by exploiting the replicative machinery of their host genome nucleus. It is a sine qua non that Bs originate from the A chromosomes, in a variety of ways. We can study their modes of drive and ask how it is that chromosomes which apparently lack genes can have control over their own drive process which leads to their survival in natural populations. Molecular cytogenetic studies are opening up new avenues of investigation. Population equilibria for B frequencies are determined by a balance between accumulation and harmful effects. Bs are also subject to meiotic loss due to polysomy and to elimination at meiosis as univalents. These balancing forces can be seen in the context of host/parasite interaction, based on a dissection of the genetic elements in both As and Bs (in maize) which interact to bring about a stable equilibrium, at least for a snapshot in time. Aside from their intrinsic enigmatic properties, B chromosomes make useful experimental tools to study genome organization. Thus far they have not been exploited for their applications, other than through the use of A-B translocations used for gene mapping in maize; but there are opportunities to use them to modulate the frequency and distribution of recombination, to diploidize allopolyploids, to study centromeres and to be developed as plant artificial chromosomes; given that they can be structurally modified and their inheritance stabilized.

Polyploidization is a major evolutionary process in plants where hybridization and chromosome doubling induce enormous genomic stress and can generate genetic and epigenetic modifications. However, proper evaluation of DNA sequence restructuring events and the precise characterization of sequences involved are still sparse. Inter Retrotransposons Amplified Polymorphism (IRAP), Retrotransposons Microsatellite Amplified Polymorphism (REMAP) and Inter Simple Sequence Repeat (ISSR) largely confirmed the absence of any intraspecific variation in wheat, rye and triticale. The comparative analysis of banding profiles between wheat and rye inbred lines revealed 34% of monomorphic (common to both parental species) bands for the ten different primer combinations used. The analysis of triticale plants uncovered nearly 51% of rearranged bands in the polyploid, being the majority of these modifications, due to the loss of rye bands (83%). Sequence analysis of rye fragments absent in triticale revealed for instance homology with hydroxyproline-rich glycoproteins (HRGP), a protein that belongs to a major family of inducible defence response proteins. Conversely, a wheat-specific band absent in triticale comprises a nested structure of copia-like retrotransposons elements, namely Claudia and Barbara. Sequencing of a polyploid-specific band (absent in both parents) revealed a microsatellite related sequence. Cytological studies using Fluorescent In Situ Hybridization (FISH) with REMAP products revealed a widespread distribution of retrotransposon and/or microsatellite flanking sequences on rye chromosomes, with a preferential accumulation in heterochromatic sub-telomeric domains. Here, we used PCR-based molecular marker techniques involving retrotransposons and microsatellites to uncover polyploidization induced genetic restructuring in triticale. Sequence analysis of rearranged genomic fragments either from rye or wheat origin showed these to be retrotransposon-related as well as coding sequences. Further FISH analysis revealed possible chromosome hotspots for sequence rearrangements. The role of chromatin condensation on the origin of genomic rearrangements mediated by polyploidization in triticale is also discussed.