Proteostasis is important for protecting cells from harmful proteins and is mainly controlled by the HSF1 (heat shock transcription factor 1) stress response pathway. This pathway facilitates protein refolding by molecular chaperones; however, it is unclear whether it functions in autophagy or inclusion formation. The autophagy receptor SQSTM1/p62 is involved in selective autophagic clearance and inclusion formation by harmful proteins, and its phosphorylation at S349, S403, and S407 is required for binding to substrates. Here, we demonstrate that casein kinase 1 phosphorylates the SQSTM1 S349 residue when harmful proteins accumulate. Investigation of upstream factors showed that both SQSTM1 S349 and SQSTM1 S403 residues were phosphorylated in an HSF1 dependent manner. Inhibition of SQSTM1 phosphorylation suppressed inclusion formation by ubiquitinated proteins and prevented colocalization of SQSTM1 with aggregation-prone proteins. Moreover, HSF1 inhibition impaired aggregate-induced autophagosome formation and elimination of protein aggregates. Our findings indicate that HSF1 triggers SQSTM1-mediated proteostasis.

Ubiquitin signals play various roles in proteolytic and non-proteolytic functions. Ubiquitin signals are recognized as targets of the ubiquitin–proteasome system and the autophagy–lysosome pathway. In autophagy, ubiquitin signals are required for selective incorporation of cargoes, such as proteins, organelles, and microbial invaders, into autophagosomes. Autophagy receptors possessing an LC3-binding domain and a ubiquitin binding domain are involved in this process. Autophagy activity can decline as a result of genetic variation, aging, or lifestyle, resulting in the onset of various neurodegenerative diseases. This review summarizes the selective autophagy of neurodegenerative disease-associated protein aggregates via autophagy receptors and discusses its therapeutic application for neurodegenerative diseases.

Relaxin-3 is a neuropeptide belonging to the relaxin/insulin superfamily. Studies using rodents have revealed that relaxin-3 is predominantly expressed in neurons in the nucleus incertus (NI) of the pons, the axons of which project to forebrain regions including the hypothalamus. There is evidence that relaxin-3 is involved in several functions, including food intake and stress responses. In the present study, we generated relaxin-3 gene knockout (KO) mice and examined them using a range of behavioral tests of sensory/motor functions and emotion-related behaviors. The results revealed that relaxin-3 KO mice exhibited normal growth and appearance, and were generally indistinguishable from wild genotype littermates. There was no difference in bodyweight among genotypes until at least 28 weeks after birth. In addition, there were no significant differences between wild-type and KO mice in locomotor activity, social interaction, hot plate test performance, fear conditioning, depression-like behavior, and Y-maze test performance. However, in the elevated plus maze test, KO mice exhibited a robust increase in the tendency to enter open arms, although they exhibited normal performance in a light/dark transition test and showed no difference from wild-type mice in the time spent in central area in the open field test. On the other hand, a significant increase in the acoustic startle response was observed in KO mice. These results indicate that relaxin-3 is slightly involved in the anxiety-related behavior.

Neuropeptide Y (NPY), an abundant peptide in the central nervous system, is expressed in neurons of various regions throughout the brain. The physiological and behavioral effects of NPY are mainly mediated through Y1, Y2, and Y5 receptor subtypes, which are expressed in regions regulating food intake, fear and anxiety, learning and memory, depression, and posttraumatic stress. In particular, the nucleus accumbens (NAc) has one of the highest NPY concentrations in the brain. In this review, we summarize the role of NPY in the NAc. NPY is expressed principally in medium-sized aspiny neurons, and numerous NPY immunoreactive fibers are observed in the NAc. Alterations in NPY expression under certain conditions through intra-NAc injections of NPY or receptor agonists/antagonists revealed NPY to be involved in the characteristic functions of the NAc, such as alcohol intake and drug addiction. In addition, control of mesolimbic dopaminergic release via NPY receptors may take part in these functions. NPY in the NAc also participates in fat intake and emotional behavior. Accumbal NPY neurons and fibers may exert physiological and pathophysiological actions partly through neuroendocrine mechanisms and the autonomic nervous system.

The heat shock factor 1 (HSF1)-mediated stress response pathway and autophagy processes play important roles in the maintenance of proteostasis. Autophagy processes are subdivided into three subtypes: macroautophagy, chaperone-mediated autophagy (CMA), and microautophagy. Recently, molecular chaperones and co-factors were shown to be involved in the selective degradation of substrates by these three autophagy processes. This evidence suggests that autophagy processes are regulated in a coordinated manner by the HSF1-mediated stress response pathway. Recently, various studies have demonstrated that proteostasis pathways including HSF1 and autophagy are implicated in longevity. Furthermore, they serve as therapeutic targets for aging-related diseases such as cancer and neurodegenerative diseases. In the future, these studies will underpin the development of therapies against various diseases.

RNA editing plays critical roles in normal brain function, and alteration of its activity causes various disorders. We previously found that chronic consumption of ethanol was associated with increased levels of RNA editing of serotonin 2C receptor in the nucleus accumbens (NAc). However, it remains unknown whether RNA editing in the NAc modulates alcohol addiction through the brain reward system. To investigate the involvement of NAc RNA editing in alcohol addiction, we generated NAc-specific knockout mice of the double-stranded RNA-specific adenosine deaminase ADAR2 using AAV-GFP/Cre and conducted a battery of behavioral tests including anxiety- and depression-like behaviors. In addition, NAc-specific ADAR2 knockout mice were exposed to ethanol vapor for 20 days, followed by ethanol-drinking and conditioned place preference tests. NAc-specific ADAR2 knockout mice showed a significant decrease in locomotor activity in the open field test although they did not develop anxiety- and depression-like behaviors. In addition, the enhancements of ethanol intake and ethanol preference that are usually observed after chronic ethanol vapor exposure were significantly reduced in these mice. These results suggest that ADAR2-mediated RNA editing in the NAc is involved in determination of alcohol preference after chronic alcohol consumption.