We explored the proactive responses of local communities against locally experienced climate change impacts and anticipated threats. This study interviewed 124 rural households from three community forestry user groups representing three ecological regions of Nepal using a semi-structured questionnaire. The study used eight criteria to distinguish the proactive nature of adaptation. Both qualitative and quantitative methods were used to analyze data, including the use of a chi-square (χ²) test to determine the proactive measures and their association with livelihood options and the ordered logistic regression model to explain determining factors of choosing proactive adaptations. The results indicate that 83.9% of households adapted both proactive and reactive measures, while 10.5% applied solely reactive adaptation and 5.6% were earmarked only for proactive adaptation measures. Over 50 different proactive adaptation measures were implemented by the households. The measures were significantly associated with agricultural diversification, cash crop cultivation, livestock raising, small-scale enterprise development, and disaster control. Socio-economic and spatial factors such as a household’s wellbeing, land holding size, geographical location, livelihood options, and the number of adaptation measures implemented by households were found to be decisive factors in choosing proactive adaptation. The study concludes that local people in Nepal are not only aware of escalating climate risks but also engage their cognition and knowledge proactively to adapt locally. The results suggest that even small proactive initiatives by households can offer multiple benefits against climate risks as an architect of individuals. Therefore, adopting a trans-disciplinary approach and nurturing local proactive actions in strategic connectivity between environmental, political, and societal functions is pivotal, which primarily takes a step to drive expediently successful climate change policy and strategy implementation. The findings of this study offer valuable insights into policy and strategy planning for the unsolicited consequences of climate change and highlight the importance of understanding the perspective of local communities in adaptation planning and implementation.

Tree ring analyses can assist in revealing the effect of gradual change in climatic variables on tree growth. Dendroclimatic analyses are of particular importance in evaluating the climate variables that affect growth significantly and in determining the relative strength of different climatic factors. In this study, we investigated the growth performance of Pinus sylvestris, Picea abies, and Pseudotsuga menziesii in northern Germany using standard dendrochronological methods. The study further analyzed tree growth responses to different climatic variables over a period of a hundred years. Both response function analysis and moving correlation analysis confirmed that the climate and growth relationship is species-specific and variable and inconsistent over time. Scots pine and Douglas fir growth were stimulated mainly by the increase in winter temperatures, particularly the January, February, and March temperatures of the current year. In contrast, Norway spruce growth was stimulated mainly by the increase in precipitation in May, June, and July and the increase in temperature in March of the current year. Climate projections for central Europe foresee an increase in temperature and a decrease in the amount of summer precipitation. In a future, warmer climate with drier summers, the growth of Norway spruce might be negatively affected.

National climate change policy and strategies set out a framework for planning and undertaking climate change adaptation as well as mitigation activities at the national and local levels. In this article, we examine the coherence and contradictions between national policies and plans, and its impacts on the implementation of adaptation measures at the local level. We undertook a content review of key climate change policy documents (n = 4) of Nepal. In addition, we conducted a field study in the Rajdevi Community Forest User Group (CFUG) located in the mid-hills of Nepal, which has developed and implemented a community level adaptation plan of action (CAPA). The field study involved household interviews, focus group discussions, and an in-depth analysis of CAPA implementation. The paper found that while policies are coherent for targeting highly affected areas and communities, they deviate from discerning an appropriate planning and implanting unit. The local adaptation plan of action (LAPA) considers the local government as an implementing unit, while the national adaptation program of action (NAPA) puts an emphasis on the local community groups. It suggests that the existing LAPA implementation breaches the provision of community-level institutions for the implementation conceived in the central framework. Despite little attention to promoting food security in climate change policy, through the CAPA, local communities have planned and implemented adaptation measures envisioned in the thematic areas identified in the climate change policy of Nepal: agriculture and food security; forests and biodiversity; water resources and energy; climate-induced disasters; public health; and urban settlements and infrastructure. Nevertheless, the CAPA is not institutionalized under government policies and the institutional framework as a local level implementing unit. So, the consensus for a local implementing unit in the policies has remained a key issue. We suggest identifying a suitable and acceptable unit for implementing climate change adaptation at the community level. Only if an appropriate implementing unit is identified can the policies be successful with a broader acceptance and desirable outcomes enshrined in the climate change policy.

The focus of REDD+ is sensu stricto on maintaining forest carbon stocks. We extend the scope of sustainable management of forest from forests to timber utilization, and study carbon offsets resulting from the utilization of harvested timber for bio energy or harvested wood products (HWPs). The emission budget of harvesting operations depends on the loss of standing biomass by timber extracted from the forest site and logging losses on the one side, and on the other on the wood end use and the utilization of processing residues. We develop two scenarios to quantify the magnitude of CO2 emissions by (1) energetic utilization, and (2) energetic and material utilization of harvested timber and compare the substitution effects for different fossil energy sources. The direct energetic use of harvested timber does not compensate for the losses of forest carbon stock. Logging residuals and displacement factors reflecting different wood use constitute by far the most important factor in potential emission reductions. Substitution effects resulting from energetic use of mill residuals and from HWPs have only a subordinated contribution to the total emissions as well as the type of fossil fuel utilized to quantify substitution effects. Material substitution effects associated with harvested wood products show a high potential to increase the climate change benefits. The observation and perception of REDD+ should not be restricted to sustainable management and reduced impact logging practices in the forest domain but should be extended to the utilization of extracted timber. Substitution effects from material and energetic utilization of harvested timber result in considerable emission reductions, which can compensate for the loss of forest carbon, and eventually contribute to the overall climate change mitigation benefits from forestry sector.

Soil organic carbon (SOC) plays a crucial role in global carbon cycling. The amount of SOC is influenced by many factors (climate, topography, forest type, forest disturbance, etc.). To investigate this potential effect, we performed a multiple regression model using six different predictor variables in the third national-level forest resource assessment data of Nepal. We found a significant correlation between the SOC and altitude (r = 0.76) followed by crown cover and slope. The altitude alone explains r² = 58 percent of the variability of the SOC and shows an increasing rate of change of SOC with the increase of altitude. Altitude was identified as a suitable predictor of SOC for large areas with high altitudinal variation followed by crown cover and slope. Increasing amounts of SOC with increasing altitude shows the significance of high-altitude forests in the perspective of climate change mitigation. Altitude, a proxy of temperature, provides insights into the influence of changing temperature patterns on SOC due to future climate change. Further study on forest types and SOC along the altitudinal gradient in Nepal is recommended to deal with the climate change problem in the future.

Logging and sawing of timber using conventional tools by unskilled workers causes enormous damage to the valuable timber, residual stand, regeneration, and forest soil in Nepal. The purpose of this study was to find out the volume reduction factor and identify major strategies to reduce timber losses in the tree harvesting process in the Terai Shorea robusta forest of Nepal. Field measurements and product flow analysis of 51 felled trees from felling coupes and randomly selected 167 sawed logs were examined to study harvesting losses. Responses from 116 forest experts were analyzed to explore strategies for reducing harvesting and processing losses. The results showed that timber losses in the felling and bucking stage with and without stem rot were 23% and 22%, respectively. Similarly, timber losses in the sawing stage with and without stem rot were 31% and 30%, respectively. Paired t-test at 5% level of significance revealed that there was significant loss in both tree felling and log sawing stages with present harvesting practice. The most leading factor contributing to timber loss in all of the three stages was the use of inappropriate equipment during tree harvesting. Use of synthetic ropes for directional felling and skidding as well as flexible and portable sawing machine with size adjustment options during sawing were mainly recommended as strategies to reduce timber losses. This study serves as a baseline study to identify and quantify timber losses in different stages of tree conversion and also formulate their reduction strategies in Nepal.