In this study, the main aim was to fabricate propolis (Ps)-containing wound dressing patches using 3D printing technology. Different combinations and structures of propolis (Ps)-incorporated sodium alginate (SA) scaffolds were developed. The morphological studies showed that the porosity of developed scaffolds was optimized when 20% (v/v) of Ps was added to the solution. The pore sizes decreased by increasing Ps concentration up to a certain level due to its adhesive properties. The mechanical, swelling-degradation (weight loss) behaviors, and Ps release kinetics were highlighted for the scaffold stability. An antimicrobial assay was employed to test and screen antimicrobial behavior of Ps against Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus strains. The results show that the Ps-added scaffolds have an excellent antibacterial activity because of Ps compounds. An in vitro cytotoxicity test was also applied on the scaffold by using the extract method on the human dermal fibroblasts (HFFF2) cell line. The 3D-printed SA–Ps scaffolds are very useful structures for wound dressing applications.

Tissue scaffolds are one of the main components of the tissue engineering triad, playing a vital role in tissue engineering. However, their production procedures heavily rely on solvent-intensive and energy-demanding methods. This raises serious questions about industrial-scale manufacturability, residual solvent toxicity to living health, and sustainability for nature and the environment. Therefore, the main aim of this study is to identify robust scaffolds that provide a suitable microenvironment for resident cells and promote tissue regeneration, while reducing waste through environmentally friendly production methods. In this context, the scalable and ecologically friendly production methods emerge as necessary alternatives as biodegradable polymer scaffolds are used in more therapeutic settings. Clinically applicable and green synthesis-based supercritical carbon dioxide (scCO₂) technologies, melt electrowriting (MEW), and solvent-free processing techniques are the main topics of this study for a critical analysis of biodegradable polymer scaffold production techniques. Scaffold structure–property correlations, polymer selection and interactions, production procedures, the benefits and drawbacks of existing fabrication technologies, and sustainability issues are discussed in detail. It aims to contribute a novel perspective and approach to literature by presenting and comparing production-oriented approaches as sustainable and green methods. The challenges in the development of biodegradable tissue scaffolds, along with the significance of green manufacturing techniques, are also revealed. The approach is designed to connect processing factors to scaffold features in addition to evaluating current technologies. This review tries to offer a framework for producing biodegradable polymer scaffolds in a sustainable and clinically implementable context.

Niaouli essential oil (NEO), obtained from Melaleuca quinquenervia leaves, is a plant-derived active compound with high biological activity properties; however, its direct use is limited due to its hydrophobicity, volatility, and instability. In this study, biologically active and mechanically enhanced nanofiber-based drug delivery systems were developed by directly incorporating NEO into gelatin (G)-based electrospun nanofibers and enhancing their stability through chemical crosslinking with glutaraldehyde (GTA) vapor. In this context, electrospun nanofibers loaded with NEO concentrations of 1% (GN1), 5% (GN5), and 10% v/v (GN10). They were exposed to the vapor generated by the GTA solution for different durations (10, 30 min, 1 h, and 3 h), temperature settings (25 and 50 °C), and two different volumes (50 and 100 µL). Morphological analysis and water solubility tests were performed to determine the optimal crosslinking conditions. Subsequently, both GN1 and GN5 NEO-loaded nanofibers, crosslinked for 1 h and 3 h were comprehensively characterized in terms of morphology, chemical structure, wettability, mechanical strength, thermal stability, in vitro drug release behavior, and antimicrobial activity. Following 3 h of crosslinking, GN1_C3 nanofibers exhibited a rapid initial release (92% in ~ 120 h), while GN5_C3 nanofibers provided a slower, sustained release (75% in ~ 240 h). Biological evaluations using MTT assay, fluorescence microscopy, and SEM confirmed high cytocompatibility and effective support of L929 fibroblast adhesion and proliferation. Strong antibacterial activity was observed against S. aureus and E. coli for GN5_C3. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study reporting the direct incorporation of NEO into electrospun nanofibers. The fabricated NEO-loaded and crosslinked nanofibers represent a platform for tissue engineering and antimicrobial applications due to their high biological and antimicrobial properties.