Monkeypox virus (MPXV) is an emerging zoonotic virus that belongs to the Orthopoxvirus genus and presents clinical symptoms similar to those of smallpox, such as fever and vesicular–pustular skin lesions. However, the differential diagnosis between smallpox and monkeypox is that smallpox does not cause lymphadenopathy but monkeypox generates swelling in the lymph nodes. Since the eradication of smallpox, MPXV has been identified as the most common Orthopoxvirus to cause human disease. Despite MPXV being endemic to certain regions of Africa, the current MPXV outbreak, which began in early 2022, has spread to numerous countries worldwide, raising global concern. As of the end of May 2023, over 87,545 cases and 141 deaths have been reported, with most cases identified in non-endemic countries, primarily due to human-to-human transmission. To better understand this emerging threat, this review presents an overview of key aspects of MPXV infection, including its animal reservoirs, modes of transmission, animal models, epidemiology, clinical and immunological features, diagnosis, treatments, vaccines, and prevention strategies. The material presented here provides a comprehensive understanding of MPXV as a disease, while emphasizing the significance and unique characteristics of the 2022 outbreak. This offers valuable information that can inform future research and aid in the development of effective interventions.

The emergence of SARS-CoV-2 in late 2019 led to the COVID-19 pandemic all over the world. When the virus was first isolated and its genome was sequenced in the early months of 2020, the efforts to develop a vaccine began. Based on prior well-known knowledge about coronavirus, the SARS-CoV-2 spike (S) protein was selected as the main target. Currently, more than one hundred vaccines are being investigated and several of them are already authorized by medical agencies. This review summarizes and compares the current knowledge about main approaches for vaccine development, focusing on those authorized and specifically their immunogenicity, efficacy preventing severe disease, adverse side effects, protection, and ability to cope with emergent SARS-CoV-2 variants.

SARS-Coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) causes Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), an infectious respiratory disease causing thousands of deaths and overwhelming public health systems. The international spread of SARS-CoV-2 is associated with the ease of global travel, and societal dynamics, immunologic naiveté of the host population, and muted innate immune responses. Based on these factors and the expanding geographic scale of the disease, the World Health Organization (WHO) declared the COVID-19 outbreak a pandemic-the first caused by a coronavirus. In this review, we summarize the current epidemiological status of COVID-19 and consider the virological and immunological lessons, animal models, and tools developed in response to prior SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV outbreaks that can serve as resources for development of SARS-CoV-2 therapeutics and vaccines. In particular, we discuss structural insights into the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein, a major determinant of transmissibility, and discuss key molecular aspects that will aid in understanding and fighting this new global threat.

Mexico is an endemic region for dengue virus (DENV). The increase in this disease coincides with outbreaks of COVID-19, both of which are single-stranded positive RNA viruses. These characteristics make it difficult to distinguish each disease because they share clinical and laboratory features, which can consequently result in misdiagnoses. This is why the use of precision confirmatory tests (qRT-PCR) are crucial for early diagnosis. We herein report a pediatric patient who presented a coinfection for DENV and COVID-19, “SARS-CoV-2/Dengue”. This patient initially presented a fever, cough, and headache and, three days later, developed generalized pain and epistaxis. Blood studies revealed thrombocytopenia and leukopenia, and the patient was admitted to the hospital for a probable DENV infection. Within 48 h, qRT-PCR tests specific for SARS-CoV-2 and DENV were performed and resulted as positive. The patient immediately received pharmacological treatment with azithromycin, oseltamivir, and metamizole. During hospitalization (9 days), the patient had no signs of respiratory distress and maintained normal body temperature and normal blood oxygen saturation. This case warns of the need for early diagnosis and adequate clinical and pharmacological management in the face of a “SARS-CoV-2/Dengue” coinfection. Early molecular detection of both viruses and timely treatment helped the patient to achieve a favorable recovery.

Dengue is considered the most prevalent mosquito-borne arboviral disease worldwide, representing a public health challenge as its incidence has tripled in the last 30 years. The World Health Organization reports 390 million infections annually in more than 129 countries, with approximately 96 million symptomatic cases and around 40,000 deaths. Mexico is a hyperendemic country, with high prevalence and significant outbreaks. In 2024, a surge was observed, with approximately 125,000 infections and nearly 480 deaths. The states with the most cases and deaths were Colima and Jalisco, respectively, placing significant strain on healthcare services and driving up costs. The disease’s epidemiology from 2014 to 2025 is characterized by marked seasonality and periodicity, and by the simultaneous circulation of all four serotypes. In recent years, a notable increase in DENV-3 has been observed. In 2025, there were 21,981 confirmed cases; Sonora recorded the highest incidence, while Jalisco and Sinaloa reported the highest number of deaths. This study provides a unique decadal analysis of the epidemiological characteristics of dengue in Mexico, highlighting potential challenges and emphasizing the importance of epidemiological surveillance and future approaches, such as vaccine provision in the country, to mitigate the high mortality rate and associated costs.

Viral infections are marked by a constant battle between the invading virus and the infected host.The outcome of this engagement heavily relies on the exploitation of host-encoded factors, which viruses leverage to grow and spread, and the host's immune response, which aims to suppress and eliminate the infection. Among the host defences, the interferon (IFN) response stands out as a crucial early barrier, mediating the induction of an antiviral state in the cells by leading to the upregulation of a wide range of IFN-stimulated genes (ISGs) with antiviral properties. On the other hand, to establish a successful infection, many viruses have evolved sophisticated strategies to evade these immune responses by targeting various elements of the innate immune system, thereby allowing them to persist and replicate within the host. In brief, IFNs are essential proteins that, via several mechanisms, regulate cell growth and the inflammatory innate response, and possess immunomodulatory activity and physiological functions. Understanding the molecular mechanisms underlying the innate immune response to viral infections is essential for uncovering points of viral vulnerability, which could guide the development of novel antiviral therapies. This research topic aimed to highlight recent advancements in our understanding of the molecular mechanisms that regulate the host's innate immune response to viral infections. We welcomed contributions across a range of formats, including reviews, original research articles, methods, short communications, case reports, and opinions. In total, the selected articles published in this research topic include five research articles and two reviews. Interestingly, HBx plays a significant role in disrupting the production of crucial mediators in the antiviral immune response involved in the IFN signalling cascade, such as RIG-I and the interferon regulatory factor 3 (IRF3), effectively inhibiting their function and preventing the activation of antiviral pathways. This interference not only reduces the production of IFN but also impairs downstream signalling, compromising the host's ability to generate an effective immune response against HBV. The review highlights the complex mechanisms by which HBx regulates HBV replication and its critical influence on the IFN signalling pathway, as well as its role in hepatocellular carcinoma metastasis and invasion. While the complexity of HBx's interactions with host immune responses presents significant challenges that must be addressed to translate these insights into effective therapeutic strategies, this understanding provides a crucial foundation for advancing future research and developing therapeutics that specifically target HBx.In their review, Liu et al. explore the unique role of type III IFN (IFN-λ), a relatively new addition to the IFN family, in antiviral immunity against respiratory viral infections. Unlike type I IFNs, which are widely known for their antiviral functions, IFN-λ operates predominantly at mucosal surfaces, particularly in epithelial cells, and plays a non-redundant role in preventing viral spread.Interestingly, the review highlights the promising therapeutic potential of targeting IFN-λ to enhance respiratory mucosal immunity. However, further clinical trials are essential to validate these findings and fully understand the implications for antiviral therapies.Zhang et al. investigated the isolation of Limosilactobacillus mucosae G01, a lactic acid bacterium, from the faecal microbiota of Bama pigs and its antiviral properties against porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV), a major cause of severe diarrhea in piglets that leads to substantial economic losses in the pig farming industry. Their study revealed that L. mucosae G01 exhibits potent inhibitory effects PEDV by enhancing the phosphorylation of IRF3 in IPEC-J2 cells, which in turn induces the production of various IFNs (IFN-α, IFN-β, IFN-λ1 and IFN-λ3). Additionally, the upregulation of ISGs such as MX1, MX2, OAS1, and ZAP was observed in a dose-dependent manner, demonstrating a robust antiviral response and effectively mitigating PEDV replication. This work suggests that L. mucosae G01 could serve as a promising and naturally derived alternative for controlling PEDV and potentially other enteric coronavirus infections. However, the scalability and clinical efficacy of such probiotic therapies remain a limitation to be addressed.in the context of cervical lesions. Their research revealed that co-infection with cervical fungi may decrease the risk of cervical lesions, compared to HPV infection alone, suggesting that fungal infection might mitigate the effect of HPV that enhances lesion development. Specifically, the study found that co-infected individuals had a 27% lower risk of developing low-grade squamous intraepithelial lesions (LSIL), a 35% lower risk for high-grade squamous intraepithelial lesions (HSIL), and a 43% reduction in the risk of cervical cancer. Cervical cancer ranks second among women's malignancies, primarily linked to persistent high-risk HPV infection. The immune response, particularly the IFN signalling pathway, plays a crucial role in controlling HPV infections by enhancing the antiviral state of host cells. Interestingly, the review highlights that infections with Candida albicans and other fungi can alter host immune responses, potentially influencing HPV persistence. These fungal infections may create an inflammatory environment that disrupts the delicate balance of the immune system, while also enhancing the immune response to HPV vaccines by stimulating T cell proliferation, suggesting a potential adjuvant role. However, several limitations exist in this study, including the challenge of establishing causal relationships between cervical fungal infections and decreased HPV persistence or cervical lesion incidence due to its cross-sectional design and the lack of detailed...