The extensive use of synthetic chemical fertilizers is associated with environmental pollution and soil degradation. In addition, the high costs of these fertilizers necessitate the search for alternative, eco-friendly and safe natural sources of phytonutrients. The liquid extracted from moringa (Moringa oleifera Lam.) leaves has been used in agriculture to improve the growth and productivity of several crops. The efficacy of moringa leaf extract (MLE) is attributed to its high content of mineral nutrients, protein, vitamins, sugars, fiber, phenolics and free proline. In addition, MLE contains significant amounts of phytohormones, such as auxins, cytokinins and gibberellins. Furthermore, MLE is a valuable product promoting seed germination, plant growth and deeper root development, delaying fruit senescence and increasing the yield and quality of crops grown under normal or stressful conditions. Here, we review the research on MLE as a biostimulant to enhance crop growth and productivity. Moreover, we emphasize its possible introduction to smallholder farming systems to provide phytonutrients, and we further highlight research gaps in the existing knowledge regarding MLE application. Generally, MLE is an inexpensive, sustainable, eco-friendly and natural biostimulant that can be used to improve the growth and productivity attributes of various crops under non-stressful and stressful conditions.

This study investigated the impacts of climate change on the hydrology of the Upper Awash Basin, Ethiopia. A soil and water assessment tool (SWAT) model was calibrated and validated against observed streamflow using SWAT CUP. The Mann–Kendall trend test (MK) was used to assess climate trends. Meteorological drought (SPEI) and hydrological drought (SDI) were also investigated. Based on the ensemble mean of five global climate models (GCMs), projected increases in mean annual maximum temperature over the period 2015–2100 (compared with a 1983–2014 baseline) range from 1.16 to 1.73 °C, while increases in minimum temperature range between 0.79 and 2.53 °C. Increases in mean annual precipitation range from 1.8% at Addis Ababa to 45.5% over the Hombole area. High streamflow (Q₅) declines at all stations except Ginchi. Low flows (Q₉₀) also decline with Q₉₀ equaling 0 m³ s⁻¹ (i.e., 100% reduction) at some gauging stations (Akaki and Hombole) for individual GCMs. The SPEI confirmed a significant drought trend in the past, while the frequency and severity of drought will increase in the future. The basin experienced conditions that varied from modest dry periods to a very severe hydrological drought between 1986 and 2005. The projected SDI ranges from modestly dry to modestly wet conditions. Climate change in the basin would enhance seasonal variations in hydrological conditions. Both precipitation and streamflow will decline in the wet seasons and increase in the dry seasons. These changes are likely to have an impact on agricultural activities and other human demands for water resources throughout the basin and will require the implementation of appropriate mitigation measures.

The adverse effects of long-term usage of synthetic fertilizers such as eutrophication, weed infestation, opportunistic diseases, and declining yields have been established. However, the fact that soil fertility declines because of continuous cropping to meet the demand for feeding the ever-growing population, coupled with the high cost of chemical fertilizers, has left little option. This mainly affects resource-poor smallholder farmers, who heavily depend on their production for sustenance and economic well-being. Current research efforts have underscored the urgency of mitigating this trend by seeking a cost-effective and eco-friendly alternative to avert impending global food crises. Biochar has gained attention as a possible alternative to meet the soil requirements on many fronts, such as improving soil functioning and restoring degraded lands. Biochar is also known to reduce heavy metal mobility and inorganic contaminants, mitigating salinity and drought stress as well as greenhouse gas emissions associated with agriculture. However, these studies need to be harmonized to draft a more pragmatic approach to policy formulation and establish an enhanced paradigm. In this paper, we review several studies on biochar and synthesize its possible use as an alternative or supplement to synthetic fertilizers to enhance crop productivity under standard and stressful growing conditions. The ability of biochar to sequester carbon and its impact on soil properties are highlighted. We emphasize its potential for soil nutrient management and the possibility of adopting it as an alternative to synthetic fertilizer in smallholder farming. We also point out several critical research gaps that call for attention and serve as pointers for future research.

Endophytic fungi have emerged as vital allies in enhancing plant resilience to abiotic stresses, offering significant potential for climate-smart agriculture (CSA). This mechanistic review synthesises physiological, biochemical, and molecular pathways through which these symbionts mitigate stress, emphasising mechanistic understanding over descriptive diversity. Key mechanisms include osmotic regulation, ion homeostasis, antioxidant defence, hormonal modulation, and epigenetic reprogramming. As demonstrated by studies on Trichoderma harzianum, Fusarium solani, and Piriformospora indica, such interactions allow plants to sustain photosynthesis, nutrient uptake, and growth when subjected to drought, salinity, heat, and heavy metal stress. Comparative insights highlighted lineage-specific strategies: Ascomycota display broad-spectrum regulation through metabolite production and hormonal control; Basidiomycota specialise in root-fungus signalling and resource acquisition; and Zygomycota contribute primarily to nutrient mobilisation and rapid colonisation. Collectively, these insights reveal that endophytes act as "hidden regulators" of plant stress resilience. Integration of fungal symbionts into CSA practices holds considerable potential for improving productivity, adaptation, and mitigation, particularly in stress-prone agroecosystems. Yet, as several sources have argued, key gaps remain including field performance is inconsistent across host genotypes, beneficial and pathogenic traits sometimes overlap, and inoculant mass production is still limited. Addressing these challenges will necessitate omics-driven innovations, efficient delivery methods, improved relationships between empirical biological research and on-farm application, and policy frameworks. Overall, this synthesis highlights endophytic fungi as essential partners in building resilient and sustainable food systems under changing climates.

The Sub-Saharan region of southern Africa is characterized by high temperatures, low rainfall, and poor land-use management practices such as continuous cropping without replenishment of soil nutrients. The combination of these factors has resulted in nutrient depletion and land degradation. The current study aimed at investigating the effect of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) and Rhizobium bacteria inoculation on soil chemical properties in field-grown forage legumes, namely, Mucuna pruriens (mucuna), Lablab purpureus (lablab) and Vigna unguiculata (cowpea), in the semi-arid region of the Eastern Cape Province (South Africa). Forage legumes were inoculated with the AMF species Paraglomus occulum and the Rhizobia bacteria species Bradyrhizobium strain and grown for 120 days. Soil samples were collected in the following sequence: prior to planting, before flowering and after harvesting the forage legumes in each of the two seasons (2017/2018 and 2018/2019) and soil chemical properties were determined using standard procedures. The results showed that the addition of dual inoculation over time greatly improved soil chemical properties when compared to the control treatment. This was advocated by the significant (P ≤ 0.05) increase in soil pH, soil organic carbon, soil organic matter, total nitrogen, phosphorus, calcium, potassium, magnesium, sodium, sulfur and iron in soils. The concentration of cation exchange capacity was significantly (P ≤ 0.05) higher in cowpea treated with Rhizobium as compared to other treatment combinations. The control treatment of mucuna forage greatly improved the concentrations of manganese, boron, copper, molybdenum, and zinc over other treatment combinations only before the flowering stage. However, the concentrations of micronutrients were significantly higher on the treatment combination of lablab and single inoculation of AMF after harvesting. Generally, dual inoculation with AMF and Rhizobia enhanced soil properties when compared to a single inoculation or untreated control.