Wastewater is actively used for irrigation of vegetable and forage crops in arid lands due to water scarcity and cost advantages. The objective of this review was to assess the effect of wastewater (mixture sources) reuse in irrigation on soil, crop (vegetable and forage crops), animal products, and human health. The metadata analysis of 95 studies revealed that the mean of toxic heavy metals including nickel (Ni), chromium (Cr), cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb), and zinc (Zn) in untreated wastewater were higher than the world standard limits in wastewater-irrigated regions. Although heavy metals in treated wastewater were within the standard limits in those areas, the concentration of those toxic elements (Pb, Cd, Ni, Cr, and As) exceeded the allowable limits in both soil and vegetables’ edible parts. In fact, the concentration of heavy metals in vegetables’ edible parts increased by 3–9 fold when compared with those irrigated with fresh water. Escherichia coli in wastewater-irrigated soil was about 2 × 10⁶ (CFU g⁻¹) and about 15 (CFU g⁻¹) in vegetables’ edible parts (leaf, bulb, tuber and fruit) while the mean total coliforms was about 1.4 × 10⁶ and 55 (CFU g⁻¹) in soil and vegetables’ edible parts, respectively. For human health risk assessment, the estimated daily intake (EDI) and human health risk index (HRI) ranged from 0.01 to 8 (EDI and HRI > 1.0 associated with adverse health effects). Although the mean of EDI for heavy metals from wastewater-irrigated vegetables were less than 1, the HRI for Cd and Pb were above the limits for safe consumption. Overall, heavy metal levels in wastewater that used for irrigation of agricultural crops could be within the recommended levels by the world standards, but the long-term use of this reused water will contaminate soil and crops with several toxic heavy metals leading to potential carcinogenic risks to humans. Therefore, rigorous and frequent testing (wastewater, soil, and plant) is required in cultivated farms to prevent the translocation of heavy metals in the food chain.

This study aims to identify services provided by forest ecosystems based on locals’ perceptions in the northern part of Jordan. By better understanding preferences of locals and by understanding why they value certain services more heavily, policy-makers and planning managers can make more effective decisions regarding development and conservation. Three hundred respondents were interviewed in order to collect information about forest ecosystem services (ES). Data collection was conducted using a structured questionnaire regarding ES provided by three forest types situated in northern Jordan. ES trade-offs and socio-ecological bundles were identified by analyzing respondents’ socioeconomic demographics and preferences of forest ES through multivariate canonical corresponding analysis (CCA). The statistical analysis indicated that the socioeconomic factors and forest type have an effect on social preferences toward ES. Results displayed a clear trade-off between provisioning services and regulating and cultural services. CCA demonstrated that 73% of the variation in ES value is explained by social factors (i.e. education level, income level, and gender), while 26% of perception variation was attributable to categories of ES supplied by each forest ecosystem. These findings imply that involving people in the place-specific management of public forests using the ES approach gives managers a clearer understanding of the benefits people recognize and value, as well as those they either are not aware of or do not value. Such information is useful in forest management and in public outreach. Although direct policy applications are limited by the research’s nature, the paper provides a starting point for incorporating forest users’ voices into policy discussions and management design.

Invasive plant species (IPS) affect people’s livelihoods and well-being by providing both benefits and costs in different contexts. The objective of this study was to investigate the impact of Prosopis juliflora invasion on land cover change using ground survey and satellite sensor data derived from Landsat ETM+. The study was conducted at Sweimeh, Jordan Valley, between 1999 and 2017. The overall classification accuracy of remotely sensed data was 86% for 1999 and 80% for 2017. Accordingly, a remote sensing approach has the potential to assess land change/cover and aid in monitoring the IPS, specifically Prosopis invasion. Change detection analysis of Landsat classes (i.e., 1999 and 2017) showed that bare soil, urban, and water surface areas decreased by 6%, 11%, and 3%, respectively. Conversely, the vegetation class (i.e., IPS and native plants) increased by 20%. Ground surveys in 1999 and 2017 showed that the average vegetation area in Sweimeh invaded by Prosopis was approximately 60% in 1999 and 70% in 2017. Accordingly, the total estimated area invaded by P. juliflora at Sweimeh (2106 ha) in 1999 was approximately 92 ha, while Prosopis coverage in the same region was approximately 413 ha in 2017. The high emergence rate, the adaptation to high temperatures and low precipitation as well as governmental regulations which restrict the removal of trees, including IPS, were the main factors that prompted the extreme P. juliflora invasion in the Jordan Valley. The high invasion rate has led to a reduction in native species, including Tamarix spp., and dried up five natural water springs in the area. Overall, a monitoring plan should be applied to control the invasion problem by Prosopis in the valley. In addition, the conservation regulations that deal with IPS should be revised to mitigate the IPS risk.

This study investigated the influence of treated greywater on growth and protein content of multipurpose (forage and ornamental) transplants, Prosopis juliflora L., Prosopis tamarugo L., and Albizia lebbeck L. Transplants of tested species were irrigated with treated greywater, diluted greywater (grey + distilled water, 1:1/by volume), and distilled water (control) for seven months. Water quality analysis showed that the concentrations of nutrients and heavy metals found in the greywater were within the acceptable range compared with Jordan Institution for Standard and Metrology (JISM) and the World Health Organization (WHO) thresholds for safe use of greywater. Escherichia coli found in the greywater were lower compared to JISM and WHO guidelines for the safe use of greywater. Irrigation with treated greywater increased shoot fresh weight by 24–39% and dry weight by 34–40% compared to diluted greywater and control. No significant difference in crude protein was noticed between water treatments. Prosopis species (P. juliflora Albizia lebbeck L. and P. tamarugo Albizia lebbeck L.) had higher shoot fresh (35%) and dry weight the same species had lower crude protein (44%) when compared to Albizia lebbeck Albizia lebbeck L. The reuse of treated greywater for landscaping or forage production alleviates the demand for water resources and reduces the pressure on wastewater treatment plants. However, considering the controversial findings of previous studies on greywater quality (especially, long-term reuse), the reuse of treated greywater needs to be considered with caution and periodic quality analyses and economic assessments are required.

People value nature based on their relationship to it and the utility they derive from it. This paper explores the utilization of forest ecosystem services and the factors that influence an individual’s relational values toward two forest-protected areas in northern Jordan: Ajloun and Yarmouk Forest-Protected Area. A random sample of 200 members from local communities was interviewed using a structured questionnaire. Later, we employed chi-square and ordinary logistic regression methods to determine factors associated with a set of relational values. The results revealed that respondents’ most valued cultural services and the provisioning of some ecosystem services. Recreation and collection of wild plants were the most frequently mentioned ecosystem services used in both protected areas. Socio-economic factors such as gender, age, income, and period of residency – influenced respondents’ relational values through monetary benefits, ecological resilience, social cohesion, and physical and health benefits. In conclusion, it is important to raise the local community’s awareness of forest ecosystems, and that institutional actions should recognize forests’ cultural, religious, identity, and existence values to help win continuous support from local communities for forest-protected areas.

In developing countries, like Jordan, climate change and population growth have prompted land-use and land-cover changes that have profoundly affected ESs, especially by poor people living in fragile ecosystems. This study aimed to analyze the attitudes towards ES among households living in Wadi Araba, a study area located in a dry ecosystem with limited natural resources, as well as to determine the value of ES and the main socio-economic and perceptions factors influencing households’ willingness to accept (WTA) compensation according to the families’ priorities. The face-to-face method was used to interview a random sample of 296 residents from the study sites, using a structured questionnaire to capture the accepted level of compensation for conservation by the local community. Additionally, multiple linear regression analysis was applied to determine the main socio-economic factors affecting WTA. More than 91% of the respondents were willing to accept compensation for three different conservation plans that reflect the resident’s priority. For the three priorities, the weighted average of the compensation levels was JOD 436, 339, 261 per household per year, respectively, and the aggregate values were about JOD (1,196,977.8, 930,601.2, and 719,411.8, respectively) (JOD 1 = USD 1.41). The residents’ gender, age, and income were among the most important factors that affect the compensation level. The main policy implications are that the government and non-governmental organizations should strengthen advocacy and education of arid ecological and natural resources protection, besides including the local community in any decisions in establishing differentiated compensation strategies and regulations. Eventually, the conservation and restoration activities will become self-initiated.