Background: Among all diseases globally, mental illnesses are one of the major causes of burden. As many people are resistant to conventional evidence-based treatments, there is an unmet need for the implementation of novel mental health treatments. Efforts to increase the effectiveness and benefits of evidence-based psychotherapy in psychiatry have led to the emergence of virtual reality (VR)–based interventions. These interventions have shown a wide range of advantages over conventional psychotherapies. Currently, VR-based interventions have been developed mainly for anxiety-related disorders; however, they are also used for developmental disorders, severe mental disorders, and neurocognitive disorders.Objective: This meta-review aims to summarize the current state of evidence on the efficacy of VR-based interventions for various psychiatric disorders by evaluating the quality of evidence provided by meta-analytical studies.Methods: A systematic search was performed using the following electronic databases: PubMed, PsycINFO, Web of Science, and Google Scholar (any time until February 2020). Meta-analyses were included as long as they quantitatively examined the efficacy of VR-based interventions for symptoms of a psychiatric disorder. To avoid overlap among meta-analyses, for each subanalysis included within this meta-review, only one analysis provided from one meta-analysis was selected based on the best quality of evidence.Results: The search retrieved 11 eligible meta-analyses. The quality of evidence varied from very low to moderate quality. Several reasons account for the lower quality evidence, such as a limited number of randomized controlled trials, lack of follow-up analysis or control group, and the presence of heterogeneity and publication bias. Nonetheless, evidence has shown that VR-based interventions for anxiety-related disorders display overall medium-to-large effects when compared with inactive controls but no significant difference when compared with standard evidence-based approaches. Preliminary data have highlighted that such effects appear to be sustained in time, and subjects may fare better than active controls. Neurocognitive disorders also appear to improve with VR-based approaches, with small effects being found for various clinical outcomes (eg, cognition, emotion). Finally, there are insufficient data to classify VR-based interventions as an evidence-based practice for social skills training in neurodevelopmental disorders and compliance among patients with schizophrenia.Conclusions: VR provides unlimited opportunities by tailoring approaches to specific complex problems and individualizing the intervention. However, VR-based interventions have not shown superiority compared with usual evidence-based treatments. Future VR-based interventions should focus on developing innovative approaches for complex and treatment-resistant symptoms that are difficult to address with traditional treatments. Future research should also aim to gain a better understanding of the potential factors that may mediate VR outcomes to improve treatment.

The gold-standard cognitive–behavioral therapy (CBT) for psychosis offers at best modest effects. With advances in technology, virtual reality (VR) therapies for auditory verbal hallucinations (AVH), such as AVATAR therapy (AT) and VR-assisted therapy (VRT), are amid a new wave of relational approaches that may heighten effects. Prior trials have shown greater effects of these therapies on AVH up to a 24-week follow-up. However, no trial has compared them to a recommended active treatment with a 1-year follow-up. We performed a pilot randomized comparative trial evaluating the short- and long-term efficacy of VRT over CBT for patients with treatment-resistant schizophrenia. Patients were randomized to VRT (n = 37) or CBT (n = 37). Clinical assessments were administered before and after each intervention and at follow-up periods up to 12 months. Between and within-group changes in psychiatric symptoms were assessed using linear mixed-effects models. Short-term findings showed that both interventions produced significant improvements in AVH severity and depressive symptoms. Although results did not show a statistically significant superiority of VRT over CBT for AVH, VRT did achieve larger effects particularly on overall AVH (d = 1.080 for VRT and d = 0.555 for CBT). Furthermore, results suggested a superiority of VRT over CBT on affective symptoms. VRT also showed significant results on persecutory beliefs and quality of life. Effects were maintained up to the 1-year follow-up. VRT highlights the future of patient-tailored approaches that may show benefits over generic CBT for voices. A fully powered single-blind randomized controlled trial comparing VRT to CBT is underway.

Objectives: To systematically review and meta-analyze the psychological effects and mortality rate in inmates having been exposed to solitary confinement in correctional settings. Methods: PubMed, PsycINFO, Web of Science, and Google Scholar were searched using keywords describing solitary confinement in combination with keywords for psychological or mortality outcomes. Eligible case-control studies for the systematic review met an operational definition for solitary confinement and evaluated outcomes after exposure to such confinement. Studies presenting statistical data which allowed to compute standardized mean differences for symptom scales or odds ratio for mortality were further meta-analyzed using random-effects models. Results: Systematic review identified 13 studies for inclusion, with a total sample of 382,440 inmates (23% having been exposed to solitary confinement). Higher quality evidence showed solitary confinement was associated with an increase in adverse psychological effects, self-harm, and mortality, especially by suicide. Meta-analysis of five studies (n = 4,517) showed a standardized mean difference of 0.45 for general psychological symptomatology, which increased to 0.51 upon outlier exclusion. Small to moderate significant effects were observed for mood, psychotic, and hostility symptoms specifically. In addition, meta-analysis of two mortality studies (n = 243,050) showed a trend for a moderate effect for mortality by any or unnatural causes (i.e., suicide, homicide, overdose, and accidents). Conclusions: Analyses showed that solitary confinement is associated with the psychological deterioration of inmates. This effect appears to be beyond that of general incarceration or presence of prior mental illness. Thus, solitary confinement may pose significant harm for inmates. Still, further studies are required to show that exposure to SC can increase risk of post-release death. Finally, add-on treatments and alternatives to solitary confinement that could alleviate the associated psychological harm are discussed.

Objective: Impulsivity is a multidimensional construct that has an important role for the understanding of diverse psychopathologies and problematic behaviors. The UPPS-P impulsive behavior scale, measuring five distinct facets of impulsivity, has been subject to several studies. No study has investigated the clinical utility of this questionnaire amongst an unstable psychiatric population. The aim of the current study is to examine the psychometric properties of the short version of this scale in a psychiatric emergency unit. Method: The S-UPPS-P was administered to 1,097 psychiatric patients in an emergency setting, where a subgroup of 148 participants completed a follow-up. The internal consistency, the construct validity, the test-retest reliability, and correlations with a substance misuse measure were examined. Results: Confirmatory factor analyses supported a five-factor solution. Results indicated good psychometric properties across psychiatric diagnoses and gender. The S-UPPS-P was partially invariant across sexes. The authors have found differences on the loading of one item and on the thresholds of two items from lack of premeditation and positive urgency subscales. Conclusion: This validation study showed that the UPPS-P conserved good psychometric properties in an unstable psychiatric sample, indicating that the instrument can be utilized in such settings.