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The primary and secondary metabolites of fungi are critical for adaptation to environmental stresses, host pathogenicity, competition with other microbes, and reproductive fitness. Drought-derived reactive oxygen species (ROS) have been shown to stimulate aflatoxin production and regulate in Aspergillus flavus, and may function in signaling with host plants. Here, we have performed global, untargeted metabolomics to better understand the role of aflatoxin production in oxidative stress responses, and also explore isolate-specific oxidative stress responses over time. Two field isolates of A. flavus, AF13 and NRRL3357, possessing high and moderate aflatoxin production, respectively, were cultured in medium with and without supplementation with 15 mM H2O2, and mycelia were collected following 4 and 7 days in culture for global metabolomics. Overall, 389 compounds were described in the analysis which encompassed 9 biological super-pathways and 47 sub-pathways. These metabolites were examined for differential accumulation. Significant differences were observed in both isolates in response to oxidative stress and when comparing sampling time points. The moderately high aflatoxin-producing isolate, NRRL3357, showed extensive stimulation of antioxidant mechanisms and pathways including polyamines metabolism, glutathione metabolism, TCA cycle, and lipid metabolism while the highly aflatoxigenic isolate, AF13, showed a less vigorous response to stress. Carbohydrate pathway levels also imply that carbohydrate repression and starvation may influence metabolite accumulation at the later timepoint. Higher conidial oxidative stress tolerance and antioxidant capacity in AF13 compared to NRRL3357, inferred from their metabolomic profiles and growth curves over time, may be connected to aflatoxin production capability and aflatoxin-related antioxidant accumulation. The coincidence of several of the detected metabolites in H2O2-stressed A. flavus and drought-stressed hosts also suggests their potential role in the interaction between these organisms and their use as markers/targets to enhance host resistance through biomarker selection or genetic engineering.
Jake C. Fountain; Liming Yang; Manish K. Pandey; Prasad Bajaj; Danny Alexander; Sixue Chen; Robert C. Kemerait; Rajeev K. Varshney; Baozhu Guo. Carbohydrate, glutathione, and polyamine metabolism are central to Aspergillus flavus oxidative stress responses over time. BMC Microbiology 2019, 19, 1 -14.
AMA StyleJake C. Fountain, Liming Yang, Manish K. Pandey, Prasad Bajaj, Danny Alexander, Sixue Chen, Robert C. Kemerait, Rajeev K. Varshney, Baozhu Guo. Carbohydrate, glutathione, and polyamine metabolism are central to Aspergillus flavus oxidative stress responses over time. BMC Microbiology. 2019; 19 (1):1-14.
Chicago/Turabian StyleJake C. Fountain; Liming Yang; Manish K. Pandey; Prasad Bajaj; Danny Alexander; Sixue Chen; Robert C. Kemerait; Rajeev K. Varshney; Baozhu Guo. 2019. "Carbohydrate, glutathione, and polyamine metabolism are central to Aspergillus flavus oxidative stress responses over time." BMC Microbiology 19, no. 1: 1-14.
Aflatoxin is considered a “hidden poison” due to its slow and adverse effect on various biological pathways in humans, particularly among children, in whom it leads to delayed development, stunted growth, liver damage, and liver cancer. Unfortunately, the unpredictable behavior of the fungus as well as climatic conditions pose serious challenges in precise phenotyping, genetic prediction and genetic improvement, leaving the complete onus of preventing aflatoxin contamination in crops on post-harvest management. Equipping popular crop varieties with genetic resistance to aflatoxin is key to effective lowering of infection in farmer’s fields. A combination of genetic resistance for in vitro seed colonization (IVSC), pre-harvest aflatoxin contamination (PAC) and aflatoxin production together with pre- and post-harvest management may provide a sustainable solution to aflatoxin contamination. In this context, modern “omics” approaches, including next-generation genomics technologies, can provide improved and decisive information and genetic solutions. Preventing contamination will not only drastically boost the consumption and trade of the crops and products across nations/regions, but more importantly, stave off deleterious health problems among consumers across the globe.
Manish K. Pandey; Rakesh Kumar; Arun K. Pandey; Pooja Soni; Sunil S. Gangurde; Hari K. Sudini; Jake C. Fountain; Boshou Liao; Haile Desmae; Patrick Okori; Xiaoping Chen; Huifang Jiang; Venugopal Mendu; Hamidou Falalou; Samuel Njoroge; James Mwololo; Baozhu Guo; Weijian Zhuang; Xingjun Wang; Xuanqiang Liang; Rajeev K. Varshney. Mitigating Aflatoxin Contamination in Groundnut through A Combination of Genetic Resistance and Post-Harvest Management Practices. Toxins 2019, 11, 315 .
AMA StyleManish K. Pandey, Rakesh Kumar, Arun K. Pandey, Pooja Soni, Sunil S. Gangurde, Hari K. Sudini, Jake C. Fountain, Boshou Liao, Haile Desmae, Patrick Okori, Xiaoping Chen, Huifang Jiang, Venugopal Mendu, Hamidou Falalou, Samuel Njoroge, James Mwololo, Baozhu Guo, Weijian Zhuang, Xingjun Wang, Xuanqiang Liang, Rajeev K. Varshney. Mitigating Aflatoxin Contamination in Groundnut through A Combination of Genetic Resistance and Post-Harvest Management Practices. Toxins. 2019; 11 (6):315.
Chicago/Turabian StyleManish K. Pandey; Rakesh Kumar; Arun K. Pandey; Pooja Soni; Sunil S. Gangurde; Hari K. Sudini; Jake C. Fountain; Boshou Liao; Haile Desmae; Patrick Okori; Xiaoping Chen; Huifang Jiang; Venugopal Mendu; Hamidou Falalou; Samuel Njoroge; James Mwololo; Baozhu Guo; Weijian Zhuang; Xingjun Wang; Xuanqiang Liang; Rajeev K. Varshney. 2019. "Mitigating Aflatoxin Contamination in Groundnut through A Combination of Genetic Resistance and Post-Harvest Management Practices." Toxins 11, no. 6: 315.
The primary and secondary metabolites of fungi are critical for adaptation to environmental stresses, host pathogenicity, competition with other microbes, and reproductive fitness. Drought-derived reactive oxygen species (ROS) have been shown to stimulate aflatoxin production and regulate development in Aspergillus flavus, and may function in signaling with host plants. Here, we have performed global, untargeted metabolomics to better understand the role of aflatoxin production in oxidative stress responses, and also explore isolate-specific oxidative stress responses over time. Two field isolates of A. flavus, AF13 and NRRL3357, possessing high and moderate aflatoxin production, respectively, were cultured in medium with and without supplementation with 15mM H2O2, and mycelia were collected following 4 and 7 days in culture for global metabolomics. Overall, 389 compounds were described in the analysis which were examined for differential accumulation. Significant differences were observed in both isolates in response to oxidative stress and when comparing sampling time points. The moderate aflatoxin-producing isolate, NRRL3357, showed extensive stimulation of antioxidant mechanisms and pathways including polyamines metabolism, glutathione metabolism, TCA cycle, and lipid metabolism while the highly aflatoxigenic isolate, AF13, showed a less vigorous response to stress. Carbohydrate pathway levels also imply that carbohydrate repression and starvation may influence metabolite accumulation at the later timepoint. Higher conidial oxidative stress tolerance and antioxidant capacity in AF13 compared to NRRL3357, inferred from their metabolomic profiles and growth curves over time, may be connected to aflatoxin production capability and aflatoxin-related antioxidant accumulation. The coincidence of several of the detected metabolites in H2O2-stressed A. flavus and drought-stressed hosts suggests their potential role in the interaction between these organisms and their use as markers/targets to enhance host resistance through biomarker selection or genetic engineering.Author SummaryAspergillus flavus is a fungal pathogen of several important crops including maize and peanut. This pathogen produces carcinogenic mycotoxins known as aflatoxins during infection of plant materials, and is particularly severe under drought stress conditions. This results in significant losses in crop value and poses a threat to food safety and security globally. To combat this, understanding how this fungus responds to environmental stresses related to drought can allow us to identify novel methods of mitigating aflatoxin contamination. Here, we analyzed the accumulation of a broad series of metabolites over time in two isolates of A. flavus with differing stress tolerance and aflatoxin production capabilities in response to drought-related oxidative stress. We identified several metabolites and mechanisms in A. flavus which allow it to cope with environmental oxidative stress and may influence aflatoxin production and fungal growth. These may serve as potential targets for selection in breeding programs for the development of new cultivars, or for alteration using genetic engineering approaches to mitigate excessive aflatoxin contamination under drought stress.
Jake C. Fountain; Liming Yang; Manish K. Pandey; Prasad Bajaj; Danny Alexander; Sixue Chen; Robert C. Kemerait; Rajeev K. Varshney; Baozhu Guo. Carbohydrate, glutathione, and polyamine metabolism are central to Aspergillus flavus oxidative stress responses over time. 2019, 511170 .
AMA StyleJake C. Fountain, Liming Yang, Manish K. Pandey, Prasad Bajaj, Danny Alexander, Sixue Chen, Robert C. Kemerait, Rajeev K. Varshney, Baozhu Guo. Carbohydrate, glutathione, and polyamine metabolism are central to Aspergillus flavus oxidative stress responses over time. . 2019; ():511170.
Chicago/Turabian StyleJake C. Fountain; Liming Yang; Manish K. Pandey; Prasad Bajaj; Danny Alexander; Sixue Chen; Robert C. Kemerait; Rajeev K. Varshney; Baozhu Guo. 2019. "Carbohydrate, glutathione, and polyamine metabolism are central to Aspergillus flavus oxidative stress responses over time." , no. : 511170.
Aflatoxin contamination in peanut is a serious food safety issue to human health around the world. Finding disease resistance genes is a key strategy for genetic improvement in breeding to deal with this issue. We have identified an Aspergillus flavus‐induced NBS‐LRR gene, AhRAF4, using a microarray‐based approach. By comparison of 23 sequences from three species using phytogenetics, protein secondary structure, and three‐dimensional structural analyses, AhRAF4 was revealed to be derived from Arachis duranensis by recombination, and has newly evolved into a family of several members characterized by duplications and point mutations. However, the members of the family descended from A. ipaensis was lost following tetraploidization. The AhRAF4 was slightly up‐regulated by low temperature, drought, salicylic acid, and ethylene, but down‐regulated by methyl jasmonate. The distinct responses upon A. flavus inoculation and the differential reactions between resistant and susceptible varieties indicated that AhRAF4 may play a role in defense responses. Temporal and spatial expression and the phenotype of transformed protoplasts suggested that AhRAF4 may be also associated with pericarp development. Because tetraploid cultivated peanuts are vulnerable to many pathogens, an exploration of R‐genes may provide an effective method for genetic improvement of peanut cultivars.
Ye Deng; Hua Chen; Chong Zhang; Tiecheng Cai; Bo Zhang; Shuangbiao Zhou; Jake C. Fountain; Baozhu Guo; Rong-Long Pan; Wei-Jian Zhuang. Evolution and characterisation of the AhRAF4 NB-ARC gene family induced by Aspergillus flavus inoculation and abiotic stresses in peanut. Plant Biology 2018, 20, 737 -750.
AMA StyleYe Deng, Hua Chen, Chong Zhang, Tiecheng Cai, Bo Zhang, Shuangbiao Zhou, Jake C. Fountain, Baozhu Guo, Rong-Long Pan, Wei-Jian Zhuang. Evolution and characterisation of the AhRAF4 NB-ARC gene family induced by Aspergillus flavus inoculation and abiotic stresses in peanut. Plant Biology. 2018; 20 (4):737-750.
Chicago/Turabian StyleYe Deng; Hua Chen; Chong Zhang; Tiecheng Cai; Bo Zhang; Shuangbiao Zhou; Jake C. Fountain; Baozhu Guo; Rong-Long Pan; Wei-Jian Zhuang. 2018. "Evolution and characterisation of the AhRAF4 NB-ARC gene family induced by Aspergillus flavus inoculation and abiotic stresses in peanut." Plant Biology 20, no. 4: 737-750.
Two important mycotoxins, aflatoxin and fumonisin, are among the most potent naturally occurring carcinogens, contaminating maize (Zea mays) and affecting crop yield and quality. Resistance of maize to pre-harvest mycotoxin contamination, specifically aflatoxin produced by Aspergillus flavus and fumonisin produced by Fusarium verticillioides, is a goal in breeding programs that screen for these important traits with the aim of developing resistant commercial hybrids. We conducted two years of field evaluations on 87 inbred lines originating primarily in China and Mexico and not previously screened for resistance. The objectives of our study were to identify resistant germplasm for breeding purposes and to examine possible relationships between resistances to the two mycotoxins. Aflatoxin and fumonisin were present in samples harvested from all lines in both years. Concentrations of total aflatoxin ranged from 52.00 ± 20.00 to 1524.00 ± 396.00 μg kg−1, while those of fumonisin ranged from 0.60 ± 0.06 to 124.00 ± 19.50 mg kg−1. The inbred lines TUN15, TUN61, TUN37, CY2, and TUN49 showed the lowest aflatoxin accumulation and CN1, GT601, TUN09, TUN61, and MP717 the lowest fumonisin accumulation. TUN61 showed the lowest accumulation of both mycotoxins. This study confirmed previous observations that high levels of aflatoxin can coexist with fumonisin, with 55 maize lines showing a positive correlation coefficient between the concentrations of aflatoxin and fumonisin and 32 lines showing a negative correlation coefficient. These selected lines, particularly TUN61, may provide sources of resistance to mycotoxin contamination in breeding programs. However, the mechanism of resistance in this germplasm remains to be identified. Future research should also address factors that influence the fungus–plant interaction, such as herbivory and environmental stress
Baozhu Guo; Xiangyun Ji; Xinzhi Ni; Jake C. Fountain; Hong Li; Hamed K. Abbas; Robert D. Lee; Brian T. Scully. Evaluation of maize inbred lines for resistance to pre-harvest aflatoxin and fumonisin contamination in the field. The Crop Journal 2017, 5, 259 -264.
AMA StyleBaozhu Guo, Xiangyun Ji, Xinzhi Ni, Jake C. Fountain, Hong Li, Hamed K. Abbas, Robert D. Lee, Brian T. Scully. Evaluation of maize inbred lines for resistance to pre-harvest aflatoxin and fumonisin contamination in the field. The Crop Journal. 2017; 5 (3):259-264.
Chicago/Turabian StyleBaozhu Guo; Xiangyun Ji; Xinzhi Ni; Jake C. Fountain; Hong Li; Hamed K. Abbas; Robert D. Lee; Brian T. Scully. 2017. "Evaluation of maize inbred lines for resistance to pre-harvest aflatoxin and fumonisin contamination in the field." The Crop Journal 5, no. 3: 259-264.
Drought stress decreases crop growth, yield, and can further exacerbate pre-harvest aflatoxin contamination. Tolerance and adaptation to drought stress is an important trait of agricultural crops like maize. However, maize genotypes with contrasting drought tolerances have been shown to possess both common and genotype-specific adaptations to cope with drought stress. In this research, the physiological and metabolic response patterns in the leaves of maize seedlings subjected to drought stress were investigated using six maize genotypes including: A638, B73, Grace-E5, Lo964, Lo1016, and Va35. During drought treatments, drought-sensitive maize seedlings displayed more severe symptoms such as chlorosis and wilting, exhibited significant decreases in photosynthetic parameters, and accumulated significantly more reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species (RNS) than tolerant genotypes. Sensitive genotypes also showed rapid increases in enzyme activities involved in ROS and RNS metabolism. However, the measured antioxidant enzyme activities were higher in the tolerant genotypes than in the sensitive genotypes in which increased rapidly following drought stress. The results suggest that drought stress causes differential responses to oxidative and nitrosative stress in maize genotypes with tolerant genotypes with slower reaction and less ROS and RNS production than sensitive ones. These differential patterns may be utilized as potential biological markers for use in marker assisted breeding.
Liming Yang; Jake C. Fountain; Hui Wang; Xinzhi Ni; Pingsheng Ji; Robert D. Lee; Robert C. Kemerait; Brian T. Scully; Baozhu Guo. Stress Sensitivity Is Associated with Differential Accumulation of Reactive Oxygen and Nitrogen Species in Maize Genotypes with Contrasting Levels of Drought Tolerance. International Journal of Molecular Sciences 2015, 16, 24791 -24819.
AMA StyleLiming Yang, Jake C. Fountain, Hui Wang, Xinzhi Ni, Pingsheng Ji, Robert D. Lee, Robert C. Kemerait, Brian T. Scully, Baozhu Guo. Stress Sensitivity Is Associated with Differential Accumulation of Reactive Oxygen and Nitrogen Species in Maize Genotypes with Contrasting Levels of Drought Tolerance. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2015; 16 (10):24791-24819.
Chicago/Turabian StyleLiming Yang; Jake C. Fountain; Hui Wang; Xinzhi Ni; Pingsheng Ji; Robert D. Lee; Robert C. Kemerait; Brian T. Scully; Baozhu Guo. 2015. "Stress Sensitivity Is Associated with Differential Accumulation of Reactive Oxygen and Nitrogen Species in Maize Genotypes with Contrasting Levels of Drought Tolerance." International Journal of Molecular Sciences 16, no. 10: 24791-24819.
Drought stress in the field has been shown to exacerbate aflatoxin contamination of maize and peanut. Drought and heat stress also produce reactive oxygen species (ROS) in plant tissues. Given the potential correlation between ROS and exacerbated aflatoxin production under drought and heat stress, the objectives of this study were to examine the effects of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)-induced oxidative stress on the growth of different toxigenic (+) and atoxigenic (−) isolates of Aspergillus flavus and to test whether aflatoxin production affects the H2O2 concentrations that the isolates could survive. Ten isolates were tested: NRRL3357 (+), A9 (+), AF13 (+), Tox4 (+), A1 (−), K49 (−), K54A (−), AF36 (−), and Aflaguard (−); and one A. parasiticus isolate, NRRL2999 (+). These isolates were cultured under a H2O2 gradient ranging from 0 to 50 mM in two different media, aflatoxin-conducive yeast extract-sucrose (YES) and non-conducive yeast extract-peptone (YEP). Fungal growth was inhibited at a high H2O2 concentration, but specific isolates grew well at different H2O2 concentrations. Generally the toxigenic isolates tolerated higher concentrations than did atoxigenic isolates. Increasing H2O2 concentrations in the media resulted in elevated aflatoxin production in toxigenic isolates. In YEP media, the higher concentration of peptone (15%) partially inactivated the H2O2 in the media. In the 1% peptone media, YEP did not affect the H2O2 concentrations that the isolates could survive in comparison with YES media, without aflatoxin production. It is interesting to note that the commercial biocontrol isolates, AF36 (−), and Aflaguard (−), survived at higher levels of stress than other atoxigenic isolates, suggesting that this testing method could potentially be of use in the selection of biocontrol isolates. Further studies will be needed to investigate the mechanisms behind the variability among isolates with regard to their degree of oxidative stress tolerance and the role of aflatoxin production.
Jake C. Fountain; Brian T. Scully; Zhi-Yuan Chen; Scott E. Gold; Anthony E. Glenn; Hamed K. Abbas; R. Dewey Lee; Robert C. Kemerait; Baozhu Guo. Effects of Hydrogen Peroxide on Different Toxigenic and Atoxigenic Isolates of Aspergillus flavus. Toxins 2015, 7, 2985 -2999.
AMA StyleJake C. Fountain, Brian T. Scully, Zhi-Yuan Chen, Scott E. Gold, Anthony E. Glenn, Hamed K. Abbas, R. Dewey Lee, Robert C. Kemerait, Baozhu Guo. Effects of Hydrogen Peroxide on Different Toxigenic and Atoxigenic Isolates of Aspergillus flavus. Toxins. 2015; 7 (8):2985-2999.
Chicago/Turabian StyleJake C. Fountain; Brian T. Scully; Zhi-Yuan Chen; Scott E. Gold; Anthony E. Glenn; Hamed K. Abbas; R. Dewey Lee; Robert C. Kemerait; Baozhu Guo. 2015. "Effects of Hydrogen Peroxide on Different Toxigenic and Atoxigenic Isolates of Aspergillus flavus." Toxins 7, no. 8: 2985-2999.
The mechanisms regulating the expression of maize resistance genes against Aspergillus flavus are poorly understood. This study examined the potential roles of six WRKY transcription factors and the expression of three pathway indicator genes in response to A. flavus inoculation in B73 (susceptible) and TZAR101 (resistant). The genes ZmWRKY19, ZmWRKY53, and ZmWRKY67 were found to possess elevated expression in TZAR101. ZmNPR1 expression was induced by inoculation in TZAR101 without concurrent induction of ZmPR-1, possibly due to the induction of ZmERF1. These findings indicate that WRKY transcription factors are involved in resistance and that salicylic acid and ethylene signaling may coordinate defense responses.
Jake C. Fountain; Yenjit Raruang; Meng Luo; Robert L. Brown; Baozhu Guo; Zhi-Yuan Chen. Potential roles of WRKY transcription factors in regulating host defense responses during Aspergillus flavus infection of immature maize kernels. Physiological and Molecular Plant Pathology 2014, 89, 31 -40.
AMA StyleJake C. Fountain, Yenjit Raruang, Meng Luo, Robert L. Brown, Baozhu Guo, Zhi-Yuan Chen. Potential roles of WRKY transcription factors in regulating host defense responses during Aspergillus flavus infection of immature maize kernels. Physiological and Molecular Plant Pathology. 2014; 89 ():31-40.
Chicago/Turabian StyleJake C. Fountain; Yenjit Raruang; Meng Luo; Robert L. Brown; Baozhu Guo; Zhi-Yuan Chen. 2014. "Potential roles of WRKY transcription factors in regulating host defense responses during Aspergillus flavus infection of immature maize kernels." Physiological and Molecular Plant Pathology 89, no. : 31-40.
Drought stress is a major factor that contributes to disease susceptibility and yield loss in agricultural crops. To identify drought responsive proteins and explore metabolic pathways involved in maize tolerance to drought stress, two maize lines (B73 and Lo964) with contrasting drought sensitivity were examined. The treatments of drought and well water were applied at 14 days after pollination (DAP), and protein profiles were investigated in developing kernels (35 DAP) using iTRAQ (isobaric tags for relative and absolute quantitation). Proteomic analysis showed that 70 and 36 proteins were significantly altered in their expression under drought treatments in B73 and Lo964, respectively. The numbers and levels of differentially expressed proteins were generally higher in the sensitive genotype, B73, implying an increased sensitivity to drought given the function of the observed differentially expressed proteins, such as redox homeostasis, cell rescue/defense, hormone regulation and protein biosynthesis and degradation. Lo964 possessed a more stable status with fewer differentially expressed proteins. However, B73 seems to rapidly initiate signaling pathways in response to drought through adjusting diverse defense pathways. These changes in protein expression allow for the production of a drought stress-responsive network in maize kernels.
Liming Yang; Tingbo Jiang; Jake C. Fountain; Brian T. Scully; Robert D. Lee; Robert C. Kemerait; Sixue Chen; Baozhu Guo. Protein Profiles Reveal Diverse Responsive Signaling Pathways in Kernels of Two Maize Inbred Lines with Contrasting Drought Sensitivity. International Journal of Molecular Sciences 2014, 15, 18892 -18918.
AMA StyleLiming Yang, Tingbo Jiang, Jake C. Fountain, Brian T. Scully, Robert D. Lee, Robert C. Kemerait, Sixue Chen, Baozhu Guo. Protein Profiles Reveal Diverse Responsive Signaling Pathways in Kernels of Two Maize Inbred Lines with Contrasting Drought Sensitivity. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2014; 15 (10):18892-18918.
Chicago/Turabian StyleLiming Yang; Tingbo Jiang; Jake C. Fountain; Brian T. Scully; Robert D. Lee; Robert C. Kemerait; Sixue Chen; Baozhu Guo. 2014. "Protein Profiles Reveal Diverse Responsive Signaling Pathways in Kernels of Two Maize Inbred Lines with Contrasting Drought Sensitivity." International Journal of Molecular Sciences 15, no. 10: 18892-18918.
Since the early 1960’s, the fungal pathogen Aspergillus flavus (Link ex Fr.) has been the focus of intensive research due to the production of carcinogenic and highly toxic secondary metabolites collectively known as aflatoxins following pre-harvest colonization of crops. Given this recurrent problem and the occurrence of a severe aflatoxin outbreak in maize (Zea mays L.), particularly in the Southeast U.S. in the 1977 growing season, a significant research effort has been put forth to determine the nature of the interaction occurring between aflatoxin production, A. flavus, environment and its various hosts before harvest. Many studies have investigated this interaction at the genetic, transcript, and protein levels, and in terms of fungal biology at either pre- or post-harvest time points. Later experiments have indicated that the interaction and overall resistance phenotype of the host is a quantitative trait with a relatively low heritability. In addition, a high degree of environmental interaction has been noted, particularly with sources of abiotic stress for either the host or the fungus such as drought or heat stresses. Here, we review the history of research into this complex interaction and propose future directions for elucidating the relationship between resistance and susceptibility to A. flavus colonization, abiotic stress, and its relationship to oxidative stress in which aflatoxin production may function as a form of antioxidant protection to the producing fungus.
Jake C. Fountain; Brian T. Scully; Xinzhi Eni; Robert C. Kemerait; Robert D. Lee; Zhi-Yuan Echen; Baozhu Eguo. Environmental influences on maize-Aspergillus flavus interactions and aflatoxin production. Frontiers in Microbiology 2014, 5, 40 .
AMA StyleJake C. Fountain, Brian T. Scully, Xinzhi Eni, Robert C. Kemerait, Robert D. Lee, Zhi-Yuan Echen, Baozhu Eguo. Environmental influences on maize-Aspergillus flavus interactions and aflatoxin production. Frontiers in Microbiology. 2014; 5 ():40.
Chicago/Turabian StyleJake C. Fountain; Brian T. Scully; Xinzhi Eni; Robert C. Kemerait; Robert D. Lee; Zhi-Yuan Echen; Baozhu Eguo. 2014. "Environmental influences on maize-Aspergillus flavus interactions and aflatoxin production." Frontiers in Microbiology 5, no. : 40.