In addition to high-purity salts, salt farms and industries generate a substantial amount of highly concentrated brine (bittern) byproducts. The presence of high salinity in this waste stream may lead to adverse environmental impacts. Environmental concerns and strict regulations on its disposal have driven the development of innovative practices for bittern management to achieve sustainable resource use and recovery. Meanwhile, commercial materials (Li, Rb, and Cs) that may be contained in the bittern can be seen as attractive value-added resources. This review article comparatively discusses the available technologies for bittern recovery, their advantages and disadvantages in terms of their technical aspects, their estimated energy and/or technological costs, the recovery efficiency of the targeted products, and the possibility of the utilization of bittern to aim for both minimal and zero liquid discharge targets. Of the bittern recovery technologies evaluated, electrodialysis offers efficient and highly selective separation of ionic compounds, while evaporation and precipitation are the most efficient methods of obtaining solid salt products (MgCl₂, NaCl, KCl, etc.). In a minimal liquid discharge system, electrodialysis can be coupled with a thermal process or precipitation to achieve a less concentrated bittern effluent for safe disposal. However, in a zero liquid discharge process, more complex recovery technologies are applied, before the utilization of liquid bittern as a CO₂ absorbent, cooling agent, or coagulant. Finally, we highlight areas of future research regarding technological developments that aim to enhance the effectiveness at larger scales and to improve the sustainability of bittern recovery and utilization. GRAPHICAL ABSTRACT

Initial research has been carried out to determine the potential of SBE as an adsorbent material through chemical and surface area characterization. Several analyses were performed, including oil content, BET, SEM-EDS, XRD, FTIR, and adsorption capacity. The oil content of the SBE samples were...

Electro-oxidation using boron-doped diamond (BDD) anode can be used as an alternative of leachate treatment. Aside from hydroxyl radical, BDDs are capable of generating chloride and sulfate radical species that play significant roles on the oxidation of pollutants. This research investigated the role of Cl⁻:SO₄²⁻ ions at molar ratios of 237:1, 4:1 and 18:1, and the influence of applied current density (i.e., 50, 75 and 100 mA cm⁻²) on the removal of organic and ammonium contaminants. The results show that current density had considerable effects on COD and colour removal, while ion composition of Cl⁻:SO₄²⁻ at pH 3, 5 and 8.5 (original pH) gave different effects on COD and ammonium removal. The pH had significant effect on the COD removal at the ratio of 237:1, but showed no dramatic effect at the ratio of 18:1, giving ∼40% of COD removals at all pHs tested. This indicates that electro-oxidation at the ratio of 18:1 could be effectively conducted at a wide range of pH. Furthermore, the optimum ammonium removal was obtained at pH 8.5 with the ratio of 237:1. This process was found to be ineffective in increasing the biodegradability index of the leachate, instead, it exhibited mineralization of organic content.