Regenerative braking systems (RBS enhance energy efficiency and range in electric vehicles (EVs) by recovering kinetic energy during braking for storage in batteries or alternative systems. This literature review examines RBS advancements from 2005 to 2024, focusing on system design, control strategies, energy storage technologies, and the impact of external and kinematic factors on recovery efficiency. Based on a systematic analysis of 89 peer-reviewed articles from Scopus, it highlights a shift from basic PID controllers to advanced predictive algorithms like Model Predictive Control (MPC) and machine learning approaches. Technologies such as brake-by-wire and in-wheel motors improve safety and stability, with the latter excelling in all-wheel-drive setups over single-axle configurations. Hybrid Energy Storage Systems (HESS), combining batteries with supercapacitors or kinetic accumulators, address power peak demands, though cost and complexity limit scalability. Challenges include high computational requirements, component reliability in harsh conditions, and lack of standardized testing. Research gaps involve long-term degradation, autonomous vehicle integration, and driver behavior effects. Future work should explore cost-effective HESS, robust predictive controls for autonomous EVs, and standardized frameworks to enhance RBS performance and support sustainable transportation.

There is a range of anxiety-related phenomena among users and potential buyers of electric vehicles. Chief among them is the fear of the vehicle stopping and its users getting “stuck” before reaching their designated destination. The limited range of an electric vehicle makes EV users worry that the battery will drain while driving and the vehicle will stall on the road. It is therefore important to know the factors that could further reduce the range during daily vehicle operation. The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of selected parameters on a battery’s depth of discharge (DOD). In a simulation study of an electric vehicle, the effects of the driving cycle, ambient temperature, load, and initial state of charge of the accumulator on the energy consumption pattern and a battery’s depth of discharge (DOD) were analyzed. The simulation results confirmed that the route taken has the highest impact on energy consumption. The presented results show how significantly the operating conditions of an electric vehicle affect the energy life. This translates into an electric vehicle’s range.

One aspect of the competitiveness of electric and plug-in hybrid vehicles is the ability to recharge batteries quickly. Ideally, this process would take no longer than it takes to refuel vehicles powered by conventional fuels. The term fast charging is generally used to refer to alternating current (AC) charging of more than 22 kW and direct current (DC) charging often referred to as fast or ultra-fast charging at high power. Currently, fast charging points are located within the public charging infrastructure, mainly along highways. The purpose of this paper was to analyze the availability of existing charging infrastructure equipped with fast charging points for electric vehicles in European Union countries. In addition, the paper discusses EU policy in terms of zero-emission vehicles and technical issues related to charging infrastructure. Based on a review of the current state of charging infrastructure and plans for its development in light of the EU Green Deal for Europe regulations, it can be concluded that in many regions the fast charging infrastructure for electric cars is still insufficiently developed. Due to the great economic diversity of EU countries, the development of charging infrastructure proceeds at different paces. For this reason, it is important to ensure that fast charging points are located primarily along the TEN-T network and highways.

Driver behavior is one of the most relevant factors affecting road safety. Many traffic situations require a driver to be able to recognize possible danger. In numerous works, aggressive driving is understood as unsafe and as a hazard entailing the risk of potential crashes. However, traffic safety is not the only thing affected by a vehicle operator’s driving style. A driver’s behavior also impacts the operating costs of a vehicle and the emission of environmental air pollutants. This is confirmed by numerous works devoted to the examination of the effect of driving style on fuel economy and air pollution. The objective of this study was to investigate the influence of aggressive driving on fuel consumption and emission of air pollutants. The simulation was carried out based on real velocity profiles collected in real-world tests under urban and motorway driving conditions. The results of simulations confirm that an aggressive driving style causes a significant increase in both fuel consumption and emission of air pollutants. This is particularly apparent in urban test cycles, where an aggressive driving style results in higher average fuel consumption and in pollutant emissions as much as 30% to 40% above the average compared to calm driving.

The rapid transition to electric-drive vehicles is taking place globally. Most automakers are adding electric models to their lineups to prepare for the new electric future. From the analysis of the automotive market, it is evident that there is a growing interest in such vehicles. They are expected to account for half the models released after 2030. Electric-drive vehicles include battery-electric vehicles. As indicated in the research literature and emphasized by experts, electric vehicles (EVs) are supposed to be an environmentally friendly alternative to conventional vehicles. The rising number and variety of EVs contribute to a better understanding of their performance. With more EVs on the market, there are problems to be solved and challenges to overcome. This article is the first part of a two-article series reviewing the strengths and weaknesses of EVs. The article analyzes the environmental effects of EVs at each stage of their life cycle, compares large- and small-scale recycling methods, and explores the potential applications of second-life batteries. This article is an attempt to find out how environmentally friendly EVs are.

The partial recovery of kinetic energy during braking allows the vehicle’s battery to be additionally charged and thus extends the range of an electric vehicle. Because of the different operating strategies of the braking energy recovery system, it is important to understand the factors influencing the level of recovered energy. The driving conditions at the place of use have a direct impact on the energy efficiency of an electric vehicle. The purpose of this paper was to analyze the energy recovered during braking in different driving conditions. The tests were based on the parameters of actual trips made along urban and suburban routes, and express roads. The collected actual speed profiles were used for the simulation studies. AVL cruise vehicle simulation software was used in the study. Simulation tests revealed that the levels of energy recovered during braking in an electric vehicle were the highest in urban conditions. The amount of energy recovered during urban driving can account for 20% of the total trip energy. In driving conditions characterized by different intensities caused by trips at different times of the day, similar values of recovered energy were recorded. When driving in the afternoon hours, the level of recovered energy per 1 km was about 2% lower than when driving in rush hour conditions. From the results presented in this paper, it can be concluded that driving conditions have an impact on the level of recovered energy. The type of road on which the electric vehicle drives is particularly important.