We evaluated olfactory dysfunction in 154 adults (74 men, mean age 60.9 ± 11.9 years), of whom 119 had type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). Olfactory function was assessed with “Sniffin’ Sticks.” A total Threshold-Discrimination-Identification (TDI) score was calculated. Type 2 diabetes mellitus, hypertension, and hyperlipidemia were associated with lower olfactory scores (all TDI scores <0.001). Age was negatively associated with odor threshold, odor identification, and TDI score (P = .009, <.001, and <.001, respectively). After adjusting for age, gender, body mass index, smoking, alcohol, diabetes, hypertension, hyperlipidemia, and cardiovascular disease, only T2DM and hypertension were associated with TDI score (R square = 0.281). Diabetic complications were associated with olfactory dysfunction (P = .006): TDI scores were lower in the presence of diabetic peripheral neuropathy (P = .017) and retinopathy (P = .047). In conclusion, T2DM and hypertension are independently associated with olfactory dysfunction while diabetic peripheral neuropathy and retinopathy are significantly associated with lower olfactory scores. The clinical relevance of these findings needs to be further examined.

The aim of the study was to investigate age-related changes in electrogustometry (EGM) thresholds, in morphology and density of the fungiform papillae (fPap) and in vessels’ shape and density at the tip of the human tongue.In 156 nonsmokers (74 males, 82 females; age range: 10–80 years), divided in age groups, EGM thresholds at the chorda tympani area, at the soft palate area, and at the area of the vallate papillae were recorded bilaterally. Morphology and density of the fPap and blood vessels’ density and morphology at the tip of the tongue were examined using contact endoscopy (CE). EGM thresholds at the chorda tympani area were significantly higher in both men and women ←60 years of age than in younger individuals. At the soft-palatine area, EGM thresholds were significantly higher in men aged 20–29 years and ←60 years compared with men of other age groups. In women older than 50 years, thresholds at all 3 areas were significantly higher than in the younger age groups. No significant differences in EGM thresholds between the two sexes at all locations tested were detected. The density of fPap decreased significantly in men aged >50 years and in women aged >60 years compared with younger individuals. Vascular density decreased significantly and vascular morphology worsened at the tip of the tongue in subjects older than 60 years of age compared with younger subjects. The study showed statistically significant differences in EGM thresholds between the right and the left side of the tongue and between the two sexes. Aging is associated with a progressive increase in EGM thresholds. Density of fPap plays an important role for taste acuity in females aged >60 years and males aged ←50 years. Morphology of fPap and vessels’ density and morphology at the tip of the tongue, as tested by CE, emerge as factors influencing taste function in subjects of both sexes aged >60 years.

Background: Steroids are widely used for the treatment of cochleovestibular disorders. Direct steroid application in the middle ear cavity, when combined with a round window membrane permeability-modulating substance, increases the level of the steroid reaching the target cells. We measured hearing in patients with idiopathic isolated low-frequency sensorineural hearing loss and in patients with sudden sensorineural hearing loss and a history of Ménière's disease. Contradictory reports about effectiveness of intratympanic steroid therapy on vertigo control and hearing improvement in patients with Ménière's disease exist in the literature. Methods: Eighteen patients with isolated low-frequency idiopathic sudden sensorineural hearing loss and 21 patients with sudden sensorineural hearing loss and a history of Ménière's disease were prospectively evaluated. The acute effect of the intratympanic application of dexamethasone with hyaluronic acid on hearing outcome after failure of an initial standard treatment with intravenous steroid and vasoactive substances was assessed. Evaluation was based on standard pure-tone audiometry findings. Results: After intratympanic injection of dexamethasone and hyaluronic acid, 14 of the 18 patients with isolated low-frequency sensorineural hearing loss showed a significant improvement in hearing. After intratympanic therapy, 15 patients with a previous history of Ménière's disease and idiopathic isolated low-frequency sensorineural hearing loss showed an improvement in hearing on pure-tone audiometry, four remained unchanged, and two showed a tendency toward a slight deterioration. Conclusion: Intratympanic combined dexamethasone/hyaluronic acid application provides a reliable and safe therapeutic option for improvement of hearing in patients with isolated low-frequency idiopathic sudden sensorineural hearing loss or sensorineural hearing loss resulting from Ménière's disease who have failed intravenous steroid and vasoactive treatments.

Obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) is the most common sleep-related breathing disorder. Repetitive pauses in breathing during sleep cause a brief but recurrent decrease in oxygen saturation in organs and tissues (chronic intermittent tissue hypoxia). Many studies have proven a pro-inflammatory status in OSA patients. However, few reports are available on the effects of OSA on the cellular immune system, mostly focusing on single immune cell types and their subtypes. The aim of this Mini-Review is to summarize these reports, as OSA is associated with a high prevalence and comorbidities such as atherosclerosis, which are known to involve the cellular immune system.