The purpose of this paper is to present research on the effects of postpartum depression (PPD) on mothers, fathers, and children that point to a re-conceptualization of PPD as a mental health condition that affects the whole family. As such, the objectives of this paper are to discuss: (1) the incidence and effects of PPD on mothers and fathers; (2) common predictors of PPD in mothers and fathers, and (3) the effects of PPD on parenting and parent-child relationships, and (4) the effects of PPD on children's health, and their cognitive and social-emotional development. Finally, the implications for screening and intervention if depression is re-conceptualized as a condition of the family are discussed.

Background: Maternal breastfeeding self-efficacy (BSE) is reflective of a mother’s confidence in breastfeeding and is a modifiable factor that may improve breastfeeding rates. Breastfeeding self-efficacy theory purports that women with higher BSE will have better breastfeeding outcomes. Research aim: The aim of this systematic review was to explore the theoretical link between BSE and breastfeeding outcomes by investigating (a) if interventions to improve BSE were successful and (b) if improvements in BSE resulted in improved breastfeeding rates. Methods: The authors performed a systematic search of 10 databases for studies that investigated the effect of interventions for mothers of full-term infants on BSE and breastfeeding rates. They used an inverse-variance, random-effects meta-analysis. Results: Of 1,366 titles and abstracts identified, 58 full-text articles were screened and 11 met the study criteria. Compared with mothers in control groups, mothers in intervention groups had significantly higher BSE, scoring 4.86 points higher, 95% confidence interval [3.11, 6.61], at 2 months postpartum. Mothers in the intervention groups were 1.56 and 1.66 times more likely to be breastfeeding at 1 month and 2 months postpartum, respectively. Interventions that were implemented in the postpartum period, used combined delivery settings, or were informed by BSE theory had the greatest influence on breastfeeding outcomes. Meta-regression indicated that for each 1-point increase in the mean BSE score between the intervention and control groups, the odds of exclusive breastfeeding increased by 10% in the intervention group. Conclusion: Breastfeeding self-efficacy is a modifiable factor that practitioners can target to improve breastfeeding rates in mothers of full-term infants.

Preterm infants are at greater risk for neurodevelopmental disabilities than full term infants. Interventions supporting parents to improve the quality of the infant’s environment should improve developmental outcomes for preterm infants. Many interventions that involve parents do not measure parental change, nor is it clear which intervention components are associated with improved parental outcomes. The aim of this review was to categorize the key components of early intervention programs and determine the direct effects of components on parents, as well as their preterm infants.