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Urban population growth means that 66% of the population is expected to live in cities by 2050. A green, efficient rail service that minimizes delays, increases capacity and reduces overcrowding on trains and platforms will be an essential contributor to nations’ post-Covid, green recovery. Digitally Enhanced Advanced Services (DEAS) are one way to help improve performance, maximize productive capacity and open additional revenue streams. Therefore, investigations are needed into how digital technologies can enhance business model design, thus impacting how business capabilities, engineering functions and human factors can be combined to improve performance and user experience within rail transport systems. This paper explores how deploying green and energy efficient rail travel as a DEAS could be an ideal solution to bridge the gap between efficiency and capacity. We also consider how service-based contracts may enable user experience to be put at the forefront of post-Covid rail services.
Stewart Birrell; Philip Davies. Mind the Gap! Can Achieving Green and Efficient Rail Travel, with a Focus on Passenger Experience, Be Effectively Delivered Through Service-Based Contracts? Inventive Computation and Information Technologies 2021, 429 -436.
AMA StyleStewart Birrell, Philip Davies. Mind the Gap! Can Achieving Green and Efficient Rail Travel, with a Focus on Passenger Experience, Be Effectively Delivered Through Service-Based Contracts? Inventive Computation and Information Technologies. 2021; ():429-436.
Chicago/Turabian StyleStewart Birrell; Philip Davies. 2021. "Mind the Gap! Can Achieving Green and Efficient Rail Travel, with a Focus on Passenger Experience, Be Effectively Delivered Through Service-Based Contracts?" Inventive Computation and Information Technologies , no. : 429-436.
Partially automated vehicles present a large range of information to the driver in order to keep them in-the-loop and engaged with monitoring the vehicle's actions. However, existing research shows that this causes cognitive overload and disengagement from the monitoring task. Adaptive Human Machine Interfaces (HMIs) are an emerging technology that might address this problem, by prioritising the information presented. To date, research aiming to define the driver's glance fixation behaviour in a partially automated vehicle to contribute towards an adaptive interface is scarce. This study used a unique three-day longitudinal driving simulator study design to explore which information drivers in a partially automated vehicle require. Twenty-seven participants experienced nine partially automated driving simulations over three consecutive days. Nine information types, developed from standards, previous studies and industry collaboration, were displayed as discrete icons and presented on a surrogate in-vehicle display. Unique to the literature, this study showed that the recorded eye-tracking data demonstrated that usage of the information types changed with longitudinal driving simulator use. This study provides three key contributions: first, the longitudinal study design suggest that single exposure HMI evaluations may be limited in their assessment. Secondly, this study has methodologically shortlisted a list of nine information types that can be used in future studies to represent future partially automated vehicle interfaces. Finally, this is one of the first studies to characterise glance behaviour for partially automated vehicles. With this knowledge, this study contributes important design recommendations for the development of adaptive interfaces.
Arun Ulahannan; Simon Thompson; Paul Jennings; Stewart Birrell. Using Glance Behaviour to Inform the Design of Adaptive HMI for Partially Automated Vehicles. IEEE Transactions on Intelligent Transportation Systems 2021, PP, 1 -16.
AMA StyleArun Ulahannan, Simon Thompson, Paul Jennings, Stewart Birrell. Using Glance Behaviour to Inform the Design of Adaptive HMI for Partially Automated Vehicles. IEEE Transactions on Intelligent Transportation Systems. 2021; PP (99):1-16.
Chicago/Turabian StyleArun Ulahannan; Simon Thompson; Paul Jennings; Stewart Birrell. 2021. "Using Glance Behaviour to Inform the Design of Adaptive HMI for Partially Automated Vehicles." IEEE Transactions on Intelligent Transportation Systems PP, no. 99: 1-16.
Highly Automated Driving technology will be facing major challenges before being pervasively integrated across production vehicles. One of them will be monitoring drivers' state and determining whether they are ready to take over control under certain circumstances. Thus, we have explored their physiological responses and the effects on trust of different scenarios with varying traffic complexity in a driving simulator. Using a mixed repeated measures design, twenty-seven participants were divided in two reliability groups with opposite induced automation reliability expectations -low and high-. We hypothesized that expectations would modulate participants' trust in automation, and consequently, their physiological responses across different scenarios. That is, increasing traffic complexity would also increase participants' arousal, and this would be accentuated or mitigated by automation reliability expectations. Although reliability group differences could not be observed, our results show an increase of physiological activation within high complexity driving conditions (i.e., a mentally demanding non-driving related task and urban scenarios). In addition, we observed a modulation of trust in automation according to the group expectations delivered. These findings provide a background methodology from which further research in driver monitoring systems can benefit and be used to train machine learning methods to classify drivers' state in changing scenarios. This would potentially help mitigate inappropriate take-overs, calibrate trust and increase users' comfort and safety in future Highly Automated Vehicles.
Jaume R. Perello-March; Christopher G. Burns; Roger Woodman; Mark T. Elliott; Stewart A. Birrell. Driver State Monitoring: Manipulating Reliability Expectations in Simulated Automated Driving Scenarios. IEEE Transactions on Intelligent Transportation Systems 2021, PP, 1 -11.
AMA StyleJaume R. Perello-March, Christopher G. Burns, Roger Woodman, Mark T. Elliott, Stewart A. Birrell. Driver State Monitoring: Manipulating Reliability Expectations in Simulated Automated Driving Scenarios. IEEE Transactions on Intelligent Transportation Systems. 2021; PP (99):1-11.
Chicago/Turabian StyleJaume R. Perello-March; Christopher G. Burns; Roger Woodman; Mark T. Elliott; Stewart A. Birrell. 2021. "Driver State Monitoring: Manipulating Reliability Expectations in Simulated Automated Driving Scenarios." IEEE Transactions on Intelligent Transportation Systems PP, no. 99: 1-11.
This article explores user experience research within a consequentialist philosophical framework, where an optimal design depends on users’ resultant levels of satisfaction and pleasure. Personas and customer journey maps can be pragmatic in indicating the requirements of a system by aggregating the overall pleasure of the majority of users. However, a revised approach, focused on minimising displeasures at the expense of reducing the pleasures of others, may level out individuals’ satisfactory experiences with a view toward more holistic, systemic satisfaction for all users. We explore our philosophical thinking and illustrate these premises with a project set out to develop technological innovation for the rail industry. We conclude with recommendations of how designers could think about user experience to incorporate systemic views of pleasure when proposing innovations.
Callum Bradley; Luis Oliveira; Stewart Birrell; Rebecca Cain. A new perspective on personas and customer journey maps: Proposing systemic UX. International Journal of Human-Computer Studies 2021, 148, 102583 .
AMA StyleCallum Bradley, Luis Oliveira, Stewart Birrell, Rebecca Cain. A new perspective on personas and customer journey maps: Proposing systemic UX. International Journal of Human-Computer Studies. 2021; 148 ():102583.
Chicago/Turabian StyleCallum Bradley; Luis Oliveira; Stewart Birrell; Rebecca Cain. 2021. "A new perspective on personas and customer journey maps: Proposing systemic UX." International Journal of Human-Computer Studies 148, no. : 102583.
Motion sickness (MS) is known to be a potentially limiting factor for future self-driving vehicles – specifically in regards to occupant comfort and well-being. With this as a consideration comes the desire to accurately measure, track and even predict MS state in real-time. Previous research has considered physiological measurements to measure MS state, although, this is mainly measured after an MS exposure and not throughout exposure(s) to a MS task. A unique contribution of this paper is in the real-time tracking of subjective MS alongside real-time physiological measurements of Electrodermal Activity (EDA) and skin temperature. Data was collected in both simulator-based (controlled) and on-road (naturalistic) studies. 40 participants provided at total of 61 data sets, providing 1603 min of motion sickness data for analysis. This study is in agreement that these measures are related to MS but evidenced a total lack of reliability for these measures at an individual level for both simulator and on-road experimentation. It is likely that other factors, such as environment and emotional state are more impactful on these physiological measures than MS itself. At a cohort level, the applicability of physiological measures is not considered useful for measuring MS accurately or reliably in real-time. Recommendations for further research include a mixed-measures approach to capture other data types (such as subject activity) and to remove contamination of physiological measures from environmental changes.
Joseph Smyth; Stewart Birrell; Roger Woodman; Paul Jennings. Exploring the utility of EDA and skin temperature as individual physiological correlates of motion sickness. Applied Ergonomics 2020, 92, 103315 .
AMA StyleJoseph Smyth, Stewart Birrell, Roger Woodman, Paul Jennings. Exploring the utility of EDA and skin temperature as individual physiological correlates of motion sickness. Applied Ergonomics. 2020; 92 ():103315.
Chicago/Turabian StyleJoseph Smyth; Stewart Birrell; Roger Woodman; Paul Jennings. 2020. "Exploring the utility of EDA and skin temperature as individual physiological correlates of motion sickness." Applied Ergonomics 92, no. : 103315.
High levels of automation in future aviation technologies such as Unmanned Aircraft Systems could lead to human operators losing essential Situation Awareness and becoming ‘out-of-the-loop’. Research into Human Autonomy Teaming proposes that improved communication between the human and autonomous agents of a system can address this problem. However, knowledge around the effect of automation audio communication is lacking in the literature and we propose audio-voice conversation would provide the optimum form of communication. In this study we evaluated the impact that providing a conversational interface to a synthetic teammate had on the performance, Situation Awareness and perception of teaming of the human teammate. Twenty-four participants conducted experimental trials on a computer-based task adapted from a Levels Of Automation test method developed by Endsley and Kaber (1999 Endsley, M. R. , and D. B.Kaber . 1999. “Level of Automation Effects on Performance, Situation Awareness and Workload in a Dynamic Control Task.” Ergonomics 42 (3): 462–492. doi:10.1080/001401399185595.[Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). The results show that synthetic voice communication had a significant positive effect on human performance and perception of teaming. Also demonstrated was that teaming structure has an effect on how that performance increases, with participants in higher Levels Of Automation where the automation provides decision making advice demonstrating a habit of consistently following voice provided advice, even when that advice results in the participant adopting new behaviours and taking more risks.
Adam Bogg; Stewart Birrell; Michael A. Bromfield; Andrew M. Parkes. Can we talk? How a talking agent can improve human autonomy team performance. Theoretical Issues in Ergonomics Science 2020, 22, 488 -509.
AMA StyleAdam Bogg, Stewart Birrell, Michael A. Bromfield, Andrew M. Parkes. Can we talk? How a talking agent can improve human autonomy team performance. Theoretical Issues in Ergonomics Science. 2020; 22 (4):488-509.
Chicago/Turabian StyleAdam Bogg; Stewart Birrell; Michael A. Bromfield; Andrew M. Parkes. 2020. "Can we talk? How a talking agent can improve human autonomy team performance." Theoretical Issues in Ergonomics Science 22, no. 4: 488-509.
The shift to electric vehicles has brought about the potential to reduce the environmental damage caused by road transport. However, several challenges prevent wider adoption of electric vehicles, such as: a lack of charging facilities, long charging times, limited range, and the inconvenience of cable charging. These barriers are more pronounced for taxis, which generally cover longer distances than regular cars and have fewer opportunities for recharging. This research aims to evaluate wireless charging for range extended electric taxis, as a strategy to minimise these challenges and facilitate the electrification of fleets. A mixed methods approach, combining quantitative vehicle tracking with qualitative interviews and focus groups with drivers and local authority representatives, provided an understanding of ‘facilitators’ and ‘barriers’ to the introduction of wireless chargers in London and Nottingham, UK. Results indicated that current wired charging infrastructure does not facilitate recharging opportunities during taxi working hours, causing longer shifts or lower earnings. Drivers reported running on a range extender petrol engine once the battery is depleted, limiting the environmental benefits of electric taxis. We conclude that wireless chargers could facilitate the increased driving range of existing electric taxis if installed where drivers stop more often. The results support the implementation of opportunistic, short but frequent charging boosts (known as choko-choko) as part of policies to alleviate the barriers to the introduction of wireless charging of electric taxis, and foster more sustainable means of road transportation.
Luis Oliveira; Arun Ulahannan; Matthew Knight; Stewart Birrell. Wireless Charging of Electric Taxis: Understanding the Facilitators and Barriers to Its Introduction. Sustainability 2020, 12, 8798 .
AMA StyleLuis Oliveira, Arun Ulahannan, Matthew Knight, Stewart Birrell. Wireless Charging of Electric Taxis: Understanding the Facilitators and Barriers to Its Introduction. Sustainability. 2020; 12 (21):8798.
Chicago/Turabian StyleLuis Oliveira; Arun Ulahannan; Matthew Knight; Stewart Birrell. 2020. "Wireless Charging of Electric Taxis: Understanding the Facilitators and Barriers to Its Introduction." Sustainability 12, no. 21: 8798.
Everyone can be susceptible to motion sickness (except those with complete loss of labyrinth function) and around one in three are known to be servery susceptible. Motion sickness can be experienced in many domains, including car travel, on a boat, using virtual reality headsets and simulator use amongst others. It is expected that due to potential designs and use cases, self-driving cars will increase motion sickness onset likelihood and severity for many car travellers. Besides medication, there are limited methods through which one can actively reduce their motion sickness susceptibility. This research develops a novel visuospatial training tool and explores the effect of visuospatial training on motion sickness. With a combined sample of 42 participants split between driving simulator trials (n = 20), and on-road trials (n = 22) baseline visuospatial skills and motion sickness were first measured. After a 14-day training period where participates completed 15-min of pen and paper tasks per day, it was found that visuospatial skills improved by 40%. This increase in visuospatial ability was shown to be directly responsible for a reduction in motion sickness by 51% in the simulator (with a 60% reduction in participant dropouts) and a 58% reduction in the on-road trial. This research has successfully identified a new method to reduce motion sickness susceptibility and the impact of these findings have wide reaching implications for motion sickness research, especially in the field of self-driving vehicles.
Joseph Smyth; Paul Jennings; Peter Bennett; Stewart Birrell. A novel method for reducing motion sickness susceptibility through training visuospatial ability – A two-part study. Applied Ergonomics 2020, 90, 103264 .
AMA StyleJoseph Smyth, Paul Jennings, Peter Bennett, Stewart Birrell. A novel method for reducing motion sickness susceptibility through training visuospatial ability – A two-part study. Applied Ergonomics. 2020; 90 ():103264.
Chicago/Turabian StyleJoseph Smyth; Paul Jennings; Peter Bennett; Stewart Birrell. 2020. "A novel method for reducing motion sickness susceptibility through training visuospatial ability – A two-part study." Applied Ergonomics 90, no. : 103264.
The study is based on the Dartford-Thurrock Crossing tunnel, Kent, UK. It analyses the impact of the tunnel closures necessary for monitoring the flow of Dangerous Goods Vehicles and Abnormal Load Vehicles as per The European Agreement concerning the International Carriage of Dangerous Goods by Road regulations. A traffic simulation model is developed using PTV Vissim software, based on real-world Dartford Crossing traffic data and validated against independent Motorway Incident Detection and Automatic Signalling data. The autonomous driving implementations of Dangerous Goods Vehicles and Abnormal Load Vehicles, defined as per CoEXist project in the PTV Vissim software, are compared against the conventional vehicles traffic simulations. The results show that if the tunnel closures are reduced to two or less per hour then significant improvements in road congestion and travel time are observed. Furthermore, the benefits of autonomous Dangerous Goods Vehicles and Abnormal Load Vehicles are observed in improving traffic queues and travel times, given that the Dartford Crossing tunnel is appropriately equipped with intelligent communication technologies. The study shows that even with a small proportion of Connected and Autonomous Vehicles, the movement of road traffic can largely be influenced.
Kushagra Bhargava; Kum Wah Choy; Paul A. Jennings; Stewart A. Birrell; Matthew D. Higgins. Traffic simulation of connected and autonomous freight vehicles (CAV-F) using a data-driven traffic model of a real-world road tunnel. Transportation Engineering 2020, 2, 100011 .
AMA StyleKushagra Bhargava, Kum Wah Choy, Paul A. Jennings, Stewart A. Birrell, Matthew D. Higgins. Traffic simulation of connected and autonomous freight vehicles (CAV-F) using a data-driven traffic model of a real-world road tunnel. Transportation Engineering. 2020; 2 ():100011.
Chicago/Turabian StyleKushagra Bhargava; Kum Wah Choy; Paul A. Jennings; Stewart A. Birrell; Matthew D. Higgins. 2020. "Traffic simulation of connected and autonomous freight vehicles (CAV-F) using a data-driven traffic model of a real-world road tunnel." Transportation Engineering 2, no. : 100011.
Previous studies indicate that, if an automated vehicle communicates its system status and intended behaviour, it could increase user trust and acceptance. However, it is still unclear what types of interfaces will better portray this type of information. The present study evaluated different configurations of screens comparing how they communicated the possible hazards in the environment (e.g. vulnerable road users), and vehicle behaviours (e.g. intended trajectory). These interfaces were presented in a fully automated vehicle tested by 25 participants in an indoor arena. Surveys and interviews measured trust, usability and experience after users were driven by an automated low-speed pod. Participants experienced four types of interfaces, from a simple journey tracker to a windscreen-wide augmented reality (AR) interface which overlays hazards highlighted in the environment and the trajectory of the vehicle. A combination of the survey and interview data showed a clear preference for the AR windscreen and an animated representation of the environment. The trust in the vehicle featuring these interfaces was significantly higher than pretrial measurements. However, some users questioned if they want to see this information all the time. One additional result was that some users felt motion sick when presented with the more engaging content. This paper provides recommendations for the design of interfaces with the potential to improve trust and user experience within highly automated vehicles.
Luis Oliveira; Christopher Burns; Jacob Luton; Sumeet Iyer; Stewart Birrell. The influence of system transparency on trust: Evaluating interfaces in a highly automated vehicle. Transportation Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour 2020, 72, 280 -296.
AMA StyleLuis Oliveira, Christopher Burns, Jacob Luton, Sumeet Iyer, Stewart Birrell. The influence of system transparency on trust: Evaluating interfaces in a highly automated vehicle. Transportation Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour. 2020; 72 ():280-296.
Chicago/Turabian StyleLuis Oliveira; Christopher Burns; Jacob Luton; Sumeet Iyer; Stewart Birrell. 2020. "The influence of system transparency on trust: Evaluating interfaces in a highly automated vehicle." Transportation Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour 72, no. : 280-296.
Customer-facing train crew members have to follow strict procedures to guarantee that trains are safe and run on time. They are also responsible for revenue protection and customer care. Human factors and ergonomics research are instrumental to understand the safety-critical aspects and improve work. We bring user experience research and personas to describe how train crew perceive their routines and how new technology may impact them. We conducted 7 hours of interviews and 30 hours of shadowing observations with the train crew (N = 22) to provide an understanding of who are they and to define their experiences. We present the crew's current routines and created two personas to represent them. One is slightly reluctant to adopt the proposed technology, whereas the other is more accepting. Results indicate how such technology may affect crew work ergonomics and experiences, and suggest which valuable aspects should be maintained, for example the positive interactions with passengers. Practitioner summary: This study investigated the work routines of the customer-facing train crew. Interviews and shadowing were conducted with 22 crew from a large operator in the UK. Personas were created to represent them. Results show their preferred activities and how these would be affected by the introduction of new technology. Abbreviations: CH; customer host (onboard catering staff); DOO: driver-only operation; ETA: estimated time of arrival; PTI: platform-train interface; TM: train manager (onboard customer-facing authority); UCD: user-centred design; UX: user experience.
Luis Oliveira; Stewart Birrell; Rebecca Cain. How technology can impact customer-facing train crew experiences. Ergonomics 2020, 63, 1101 -1115.
AMA StyleLuis Oliveira, Stewart Birrell, Rebecca Cain. How technology can impact customer-facing train crew experiences. Ergonomics. 2020; 63 (9):1101-1115.
Chicago/Turabian StyleLuis Oliveira; Stewart Birrell; Rebecca Cain. 2020. "How technology can impact customer-facing train crew experiences." Ergonomics 63, no. 9: 1101-1115.
Recently, there has been a considerable improvement in low-speed autonomous vehicles (LSAVs), which will function key roles in future intelligent transportation systems. To be successfully distributed on a real road, these vehicles must have the ability to drive autonomously along collision-free paths whilst flowing traffic laws. LSAVs use Lidar sensors to avoid obstacles in its path. However, Lidar sensors have unreliability limitation, which consequently any decision made by sensors alone is insufficient and has let to serious accidents. This is because the difficulties to determine in the sensor fusion system, how wrong information can affect the decision made by the vehicle. In this paper, an observer system is present for fault detection of automated sensor fusion system for a LSAV, which functions based on octree fusion. Through this study, an analytical observer processing the information obtained by physical redundancy and an octree fusion process based on a probabilistic model of occupation of the voxels. This method shows that the decision made by the vehicle is more accurate than the existing system especially when a sensor sends incorrect information to the sensor fusion system.
Abdul N. Raouf; Osama Alluhaibi; Stewart Birrell; Matthew D. Higgins; Simon Brewerton. A Probabilistic Octree Fusion Model for Analytical-Based Observer Fault Detection in LSAVs. 2020 IEEE 91st Vehicular Technology Conference (VTC2020-Spring) 2020, 1 -7.
AMA StyleAbdul N. Raouf, Osama Alluhaibi, Stewart Birrell, Matthew D. Higgins, Simon Brewerton. A Probabilistic Octree Fusion Model for Analytical-Based Observer Fault Detection in LSAVs. 2020 IEEE 91st Vehicular Technology Conference (VTC2020-Spring). 2020; ():1-7.
Chicago/Turabian StyleAbdul N. Raouf; Osama Alluhaibi; Stewart Birrell; Matthew D. Higgins; Simon Brewerton. 2020. "A Probabilistic Octree Fusion Model for Analytical-Based Observer Fault Detection in LSAVs." 2020 IEEE 91st Vehicular Technology Conference (VTC2020-Spring) , no. : 1-7.
Since Mao in 2013 discretised the system observations for stabilisation problem of hybrid SDEs (stochastic differential equations with Markovian switching) by feedback control, the study of this topic using a constant observation frequency has been further developed. However, time-varying observation frequencies have not been considered. Particularly, an observational more efficient way is to consider the time-varying property of the system and observe a periodic SDE system at the periodic time-varying frequencies. This study investigates how to stabilise a periodic hybrid SDE by a periodic feedback control, based on periodic discrete-time observations. This study provides sufficient conditions under which the controlled system can achieve p th moment exponential stability for and almost sure exponential stability. Lyapunov's method and inequalities are main tools for derivation and analysis. The existence of observation interval sequences is verified and one way of its calculation is provided. Finally, an example is given for illustration. Their new techniques not only reduce observational cost by reducing observation frequency dramatically but also offer flexibility on system observation settings. This study allows readers to set observation frequencies according to their needs to some extent.
Ran Dong; Xuerong Mao; Stewart A Birrell. Exponential stabilisation of continuous‐time periodic stochastic systems by feedback control based on periodic discrete‐time observations. IET Control Theory & Applications 2020, 14, 909 -919.
AMA StyleRan Dong, Xuerong Mao, Stewart A Birrell. Exponential stabilisation of continuous‐time periodic stochastic systems by feedback control based on periodic discrete‐time observations. IET Control Theory & Applications. 2020; 14 (6):909-919.
Chicago/Turabian StyleRan Dong; Xuerong Mao; Stewart A Birrell. 2020. "Exponential stabilisation of continuous‐time periodic stochastic systems by feedback control based on periodic discrete‐time observations." IET Control Theory & Applications 14, no. 6: 909-919.
Technological developments present diverse opportunities to modernise services for the rail industry. Systems can be implemented to improve passengers’ experiences, but these may also affect the experiences of crew working on board trains. This first-of-a-kind research extends the concept of customer journey mapping as a design tool to understand the experiences of train crew. To produce these crew journey maps, interviews and user observation methods were adopted (N = 22). Results show that two main negative touchpoints for the crew occur at the platform-train interface and during revenue protection activities. This paper presents an innovative methodological contribution around journey mapping to better understand rail experiences, but revolving around the crew rather than the expected consumer experience. We conclude this paper proposing requirements for technological systems and indicate opportunities for the design of systems to generate human-centred improvements for the working practices and experiences of train crew.
Luis Cr. Oliveira; Stewart Birrell; Rebecca Cain. Journey mapping from a crew's perspective: Understanding rail experiences. Applied Ergonomics 2020, 85, 103063 .
AMA StyleLuis Cr. Oliveira, Stewart Birrell, Rebecca Cain. Journey mapping from a crew's perspective: Understanding rail experiences. Applied Ergonomics. 2020; 85 ():103063.
Chicago/Turabian StyleLuis Cr. Oliveira; Stewart Birrell; Rebecca Cain. 2020. "Journey mapping from a crew's perspective: Understanding rail experiences." Applied Ergonomics 85, no. : 103063.
While partially automated vehicles can provide a range of benefits, they also bring about new Human Machine Interface (HMI) challenges around ensuring the driver remains alert and is able to take control of the vehicle when required. While humans are poor monitors of automated processes, specifically during ‘steady state’ operation, presenting the appropriate information to the driver can help. But to date, interfaces of partially automated vehicles have shown evidence of causing cognitive overload. Adaptive HMIs that automatically change the information presented (for example, based on workload, time or physiologically), have been previously proposed as a solution, but little is known about how information should adapt during steady-state driving. This study aimed to classify information usage based on driver experience to inform the design of a future adaptive HMI in partially automated vehicles. The unique feature of this study over existing literature is that each participant attended for five consecutive days; enabling a first look at how information usage changes with increasing familiarity and providing a methodological contribution to future HMI user trial study design. Seventeen participants experienced a steady-state automated driving simulation for twenty-six minutes per day in a driving simulator, replicating a regularly driven route, such as a work commute. Nine information icons, representative of future partially automated vehicle HMIs, were displayed on a tablet and eye tracking was used to record the information that the participants fixated on. The results found that information usage did change with increased exposure, with significant differences in what information participants looked at between the first and last trial days. With increasing experience, participants tended to view information as confirming technical competence rather than the future state of the vehicle. On this basis, interface design recommendations are made, particularly around the design of adaptive interfaces for future partially automated vehicles.
Arun Ulahannan; Paul Jennings; Luis Oliveira; Stewart Birrell. Designing an Adaptive Interface: Using Eye Tracking to Classify How Information Usage Changes Over Time in Partially Automated Vehicles. IEEE Access 2020, 8, 16865 -16875.
AMA StyleArun Ulahannan, Paul Jennings, Luis Oliveira, Stewart Birrell. Designing an Adaptive Interface: Using Eye Tracking to Classify How Information Usage Changes Over Time in Partially Automated Vehicles. IEEE Access. 2020; 8 (99):16865-16875.
Chicago/Turabian StyleArun Ulahannan; Paul Jennings; Luis Oliveira; Stewart Birrell. 2020. "Designing an Adaptive Interface: Using Eye Tracking to Classify How Information Usage Changes Over Time in Partially Automated Vehicles." IEEE Access 8, no. 99: 16865-16875.
Autonomous vehicles (AVs) operating in shared urban environments, often referred to as “pods”, will constantly have to interact with pedestrians. As a result, an effective strategy will be required for pods to continue operating, while in close proximity to people. This strategy could be in terms of active negotiation, where a pod identifies a person and gives way; or a more passive strategy, such as requiring pods to travel close together in platoons, in order to reduce the number of individual vehicle encounters. For this latter example, it is critical to understand how the spaces between pods and AVs in general are perceived by pedestrians, and what factors will persuade and dissuade crossing. Therefore, this paper seeks to understand this relationship, and presents results from a pedestrian gap acceptance study for platoons. To ensure the safety of participants, a virtual environment was used instead of real vehicles. The goal of the experiment described in this paper, is to understand the gap acceptance behaviour of participants, when presented with a platoon of pods in different environments. The experiment evaluated four vehicle speeds, from 1 km/h to 16 km/h, four temporal gaps, from 2 s to 5 s, and two environments. These environments were a typical road layout, with footpath and line markings, and a shared space, where all markings and separation between pod and pedestrian were removed. For each scenario, participants were asked if they would cross between the pods and how safe they felt about the situation, recorded as a Likert score. The results suggest that people are more likely to attempt to cross between a platoon of pods when they are travelling closer together in a shared space (no line markings or separation between vehicles and pedestrian), compared to a road environment (separated by raised pavement and road markings). However, it was also found that people’s subjective rating of safeness was higher in the road environment, when presented with a platoon of pods, compared to the shared space.
Roger Woodman; Ke Lu; Matthew D. Higgins; Simon Brewerton; Paul A. Jennings; Stewart Birrell. Gap acceptance study of pedestrians crossing between platooning autonomous vehicles in a virtual environment. Transportation Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour 2019, 67, 1 -14.
AMA StyleRoger Woodman, Ke Lu, Matthew D. Higgins, Simon Brewerton, Paul A. Jennings, Stewart Birrell. Gap acceptance study of pedestrians crossing between platooning autonomous vehicles in a virtual environment. Transportation Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour. 2019; 67 ():1-14.
Chicago/Turabian StyleRoger Woodman; Ke Lu; Matthew D. Higgins; Simon Brewerton; Paul A. Jennings; Stewart Birrell. 2019. "Gap acceptance study of pedestrians crossing between platooning autonomous vehicles in a virtual environment." Transportation Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour 67, no. : 1-14.
Partially automated vehicles present interface design challenges in ensuring the driver remains alert should the vehicle need to hand back control at short notice, but without exposing the driver to cognitive overload. To date, little is known about driver expectations of partial driving automation and whether this affects the information they require inside the vehicle. Twenty-five participants were presented with five partially automated driving events in a driving simulator. After each event, a semi-structured interview was conducted. The interview data was coded and analysed using grounded theory. From the results, two groupings of driver expectations were identified: High Information Preference (HIP) and Low Information Preference (LIP) drivers; between these two groups the information preferences differed. LIP drivers did not want detailed information about the vehicle presented to them, but the definition of partial automation means that this kind of information is required for safe use. Hence, the results suggest careful thought as to how information is presented to them is required in order for LIP drivers to safely using partial driving automation. Conversely, HIP drivers wanted detailed information about the system's status and driving and were found to be more willing to work with the partial automation and its current limitations. It was evident that the drivers' expectations of the partial automation capability differed, and this affected their information preferences. Hence this study suggests that HMI designers must account for these differing expectations and preferences to create a safe, usable system that works for everyone.
Arun Ulahannan; Rebecca Cain; Simon Thompson; Lee Skrypchuk; Alex Mouzakitis; Paul Jennings; Stewart Birrell. User expectations of partial driving automation capabilities and their effect on information design preferences in the vehicle. Applied Ergonomics 2019, 82, 102969 .
AMA StyleArun Ulahannan, Rebecca Cain, Simon Thompson, Lee Skrypchuk, Alex Mouzakitis, Paul Jennings, Stewart Birrell. User expectations of partial driving automation capabilities and their effect on information design preferences in the vehicle. Applied Ergonomics. 2019; 82 ():102969.
Chicago/Turabian StyleArun Ulahannan; Rebecca Cain; Simon Thompson; Lee Skrypchuk; Alex Mouzakitis; Paul Jennings; Stewart Birrell. 2019. "User expectations of partial driving automation capabilities and their effect on information design preferences in the vehicle." Applied Ergonomics 82, no. : 102969.
For autonomous vehicles (AVs), which when deployed in urban areas are called “pods”, to be used as part of a commercially viable low-cost urban transport system, they will need to operate efficiently. Among ways to achieve efficiency, is to minimise time vehicles are not serving users. To reduce the amount of wasted time, this paper presents a novel approach for distribution of AVs within an urban environment. Our approach uses evolutionary computation, in the form of a genetic algorithm (GA), which is applied to a simulation of an intelligent transportation service, operating in the city of Coventry, UK. The goal of the GA is to optimise distribution of pods, to reduce the amount of user waiting time. To test the algorithm, real-world transport data was obtained for Coventry, which in turn was processed to generate user demand patterns. Results from the study showed a 30% increase in the number of successful journeys completed in a 24 hours, compared to a random distribution. The implications of these findings could yield significant benefits for fleet management companies. These include increases in profits per day, a decrease in capital cost, and better energy efficiency. The algorithm could also be adapted to any service offering pick up and drop of points, including package delivery and transportation of goods.
Roger Woodman; William Hill; Stewart Birrell; Matthew D. Higgins. An Evolutionary Approach to the Optimisation of Autonomous Pod Distribution for Application in an Urban Transportation Service. 2019 23rd International Conference on Mechatronics Technology (ICMT) 2019, 1 -6.
AMA StyleRoger Woodman, William Hill, Stewart Birrell, Matthew D. Higgins. An Evolutionary Approach to the Optimisation of Autonomous Pod Distribution for Application in an Urban Transportation Service. 2019 23rd International Conference on Mechatronics Technology (ICMT). 2019; ():1-6.
Chicago/Turabian StyleRoger Woodman; William Hill; Stewart Birrell; Matthew D. Higgins. 2019. "An Evolutionary Approach to the Optimisation of Autonomous Pod Distribution for Application in an Urban Transportation Service." 2019 23rd International Conference on Mechatronics Technology (ICMT) , no. : 1-6.
Claudia Geitner; Francesco Biondi; Lee Skrypchuk; Paul Jennings; Stewart Birrell. The comparison of auditory, tactile, and multimodal warnings for the effective communication of unexpected events during an automated driving scenario. Transportation Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour 2019, 65, 23 -33.
AMA StyleClaudia Geitner, Francesco Biondi, Lee Skrypchuk, Paul Jennings, Stewart Birrell. The comparison of auditory, tactile, and multimodal warnings for the effective communication of unexpected events during an automated driving scenario. Transportation Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour. 2019; 65 ():23-33.
Chicago/Turabian StyleClaudia Geitner; Francesco Biondi; Lee Skrypchuk; Paul Jennings; Stewart Birrell. 2019. "The comparison of auditory, tactile, and multimodal warnings for the effective communication of unexpected events during an automated driving scenario." Transportation Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour 65, no. : 23-33.
Inappropriate trust in highly automated vehicles (HAVs) has been identified as one of the causes in several accidents [1, 2, 3]. These accidents have evidenced the need to include a Driver State Monitoring System (DSMS) [4] into those HAVs which may require occasional manual driving. DSMS make use of several psychophysiological sensors to monitor the drivers’ state, and have already been included in current production vehicles to detect drowsiness, fatigue and distractions [5]. However, DSMS have never been used to monitor Trust in Automation (TiA) states within HAVs yet. Based on recent findings, this paper proposes a new methodology to integrate TiA state-classification into DSMSs for future vehicles.
Jaume Perello-March; Christopher Burns; Mark Elliott; Stewart Birrell. Integrating Trust in Automation into Driver State Monitoring Systems. Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing 2019, 344 -349.
AMA StyleJaume Perello-March, Christopher Burns, Mark Elliott, Stewart Birrell. Integrating Trust in Automation into Driver State Monitoring Systems. Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing. 2019; ():344-349.
Chicago/Turabian StyleJaume Perello-March; Christopher Burns; Mark Elliott; Stewart Birrell. 2019. "Integrating Trust in Automation into Driver State Monitoring Systems." Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing , no. : 344-349.