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Freja Nygaard Rasmussen
Department of the Built Environment, Copenhagen Campus, Aalborg University, 2450 Copenhagen, Denmark

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Short Biography

Freja graduated with an M.Sc. in environmental management from Technical University of Denmark in 2012, and obtained a PhD at Aalborg University in 2020 on the topic of low-carbon building design in method and practice. Research interests: Life cycle assessment of products and systems, circular economy, green transition.

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Review
Published: 18 August 2021 in Buildings
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The use of wood and timber products in the construction of buildings is repeatedly pointed towards as a mean for lowering the environmental footprint. With several countries preparing regulation for life cycle assessment of buildings, practitioners from industry will presumably look to the pool of data on wood products found in environmental product declarations (EPDs). However, the EPDs may vary broadly in terms of reporting and results. This study provides a comprehensive review of 81 third-party verified EN 15804 EPDs of cross laminated timber (CLT), glulam, laminated veneer lumber (LVL) and timber. The 81 EPDs represent 86 different products and 152 different product scenarios. The EPDs mainly represent European production, but also North America and Australia/New Zealand productions are represented. Reported global warming potential (GWP) from the EPDs vary within each of the investigated product categories, due to density of the products and the end-of-life scenarios applied. Median results per kg of product, excluding the biogenic CO2, are found at 0.26, 0.24, and 0.17 kg CO2e for CLT, glulam, and timber, respectively. Results further showed that the correlation between GWP and other impact categories is limited. Analysis of the inherent data uncertainty showed to add up to ±41% to reported impacts when assessed with an uncertainty method from the literature. However, in some of the average EPDs, even larger uncertainties of up to 90% for GWP are reported. Life cycle assessment practitioners can use the median values from this study as generic data in their assessments of buildings. To make the EPDs easier to use for practitioners, a more detailed coordination between EPD programs and their product category rules is recommended, as well as digitalization of EPD data.

ACS Style

Freja Nygaard Rasmussen; Camilla Ernst Andersen; Alexandra Wittchen; Rasmus Nøddegaard Hansen; Harpa Birgisdóttir. Environmental Product Declarations of Structural Wood: A Review of Impacts and Potential Pitfalls for Practice. Buildings 2021, 11, 362 .

AMA Style

Freja Nygaard Rasmussen, Camilla Ernst Andersen, Alexandra Wittchen, Rasmus Nøddegaard Hansen, Harpa Birgisdóttir. Environmental Product Declarations of Structural Wood: A Review of Impacts and Potential Pitfalls for Practice. Buildings. 2021; 11 (8):362.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Freja Nygaard Rasmussen; Camilla Ernst Andersen; Alexandra Wittchen; Rasmus Nøddegaard Hansen; Harpa Birgisdóttir. 2021. "Environmental Product Declarations of Structural Wood: A Review of Impacts and Potential Pitfalls for Practice." Buildings 11, no. 8: 362.

Journal article
Published: 01 February 2021 in Sustainability
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Buildings are a major cause of global resource consumption, greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and other impacts on the environment, originating from both operational energy and material use. Informed design decisions can help mitigate potential impacts on the environment, by the use of life cycle assessment (LCA) in the early project stages. In order to mitigate building environment impacts throughout the industry, architects and engineers need tools that are integrated in the design workflow and based on the information available. Existing LCA tools for building design professionals are predominantly embedded in a specific context such as a country or a sustainability scheme. This paper provides learnings for the development of context-tailored tools for building-LCA using the case of Denmark, with specific focus on GHG-emissions that are in focus worldwide. Based on stakeholder involvement, four key areas were defined: Default information, flexibility, environmental design feedback and transparent results. Tool functions include a component library and a quantity estimator for bridging incomplete building information. A comparison monitor displays the performance of design solutions selected in the model, while a number of graphs and tables provide analysis of inventory and results. Finally, a customisable model data export, a complete input/output file for revision and custom analysis are among key functions for transparency.

ACS Style

Kai Kanafani; Regitze Kjær Zimmermann; Freja Nygaard Rasmussen; Harpa Birgisdóttir. Learnings from Developing a Context-Specific LCA Tool for Buildings—The Case of LCAbyg 4. Sustainability 2021, 13, 1508 .

AMA Style

Kai Kanafani, Regitze Kjær Zimmermann, Freja Nygaard Rasmussen, Harpa Birgisdóttir. Learnings from Developing a Context-Specific LCA Tool for Buildings—The Case of LCAbyg 4. Sustainability. 2021; 13 (3):1508.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Kai Kanafani; Regitze Kjær Zimmermann; Freja Nygaard Rasmussen; Harpa Birgisdóttir. 2021. "Learnings from Developing a Context-Specific LCA Tool for Buildings—The Case of LCAbyg 4." Sustainability 13, no. 3: 1508.

Journal article
Published: 17 November 2020 in Sustainability
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Transitioning the built environment to a circular economy (CE) is vital to achieve sustainability goals but requires metrics. Life cycle assessment (LCA) can analyse the environmental performance of CE. However, conventional LCA methods assess individual products and single life cycles whereas circular assessment requires a systems perspective as buildings, components and materials potentially have multiple use and life cycles. How should benefits and burdens be allocated between life cycles? This study compares four different LCA allocation approaches: (a) the EN 15804/15978 cut-off approach, (b) the Circular Footprint Formula (CFF), (c) the 50:50 approach, and (d) the linearly degressive (LD) approach. The environmental impacts of four ‘circular building components’ is calculated: (1) a concrete column and (2) a timber column both designed for direct reuse, (3) a recyclable roof felt and (4) a window with a reusable frame. Notable differences in impact distributions between the allocation approaches were found, thus incentivising different CE principles. The LD approach was found to be promising for open and closed-loop systems within a closed loop supply chain (such as the ones assessed here). A CE LD approach was developed to enhance the LD approach’s applicability, to closer align it with the CE concept, and to create an incentive for CE in the industry.

ACS Style

Leonora Malabi Eberhardt; Anne Van Stijn; Freja Nygaard Rasmussen; Morten Birkved; Harpa Birgisdottir. Development of a Life Cycle Assessment Allocation Approach for Circular Economy in the Built Environment. Sustainability 2020, 12, 9579 .

AMA Style

Leonora Malabi Eberhardt, Anne Van Stijn, Freja Nygaard Rasmussen, Morten Birkved, Harpa Birgisdottir. Development of a Life Cycle Assessment Allocation Approach for Circular Economy in the Built Environment. Sustainability. 2020; 12 (22):9579.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Leonora Malabi Eberhardt; Anne Van Stijn; Freja Nygaard Rasmussen; Morten Birkved; Harpa Birgisdottir. 2020. "Development of a Life Cycle Assessment Allocation Approach for Circular Economy in the Built Environment." Sustainability 12, no. 22: 9579.

Journal article
Published: 09 May 2020 in Construction Economics and Building
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Sustainable housing and buildings constitute a fundamental part of the future urban fabric. This study aims at clarifying how different actors employ parameters of sustainability in building design and what enables the holistic perspective of the interrelating social, economic and environmental parameters. Interviews with building developers and designers show that decision support tools are used late in the design process and commonly focused on single parameters of sustainability. The analysis shows how practitioners of the planning and early design phases operate at general levels of geometrical clusters and volumes but must continuously evaluate each project from the perspective of the specifications of end-users and the public, to ensure holistic sustainability. This opposing relationship between need and availability of general and specific data, however, challenges the implementation of holistic sustainability. Advancing the interdisciplinary, holistic building design requires systematic aggregation of data from executed projects of this data into applicable rules-of-thumb. In parallel, future tools for simulation and dialogue must employ a broader scope of sustainability parameters. The conceptual frameworks of data and tools presented in this study can be used as a backdrop for developing sectoral

ACS Style

Nils Lykke Sørensen; Freja Nygaard Rasmussen; Turid Borgestrand Øien; Anne Kathrine Frandsen. Holistic sustainability: advancing interdisciplinary building design through tools and data in Denmark. Construction Economics and Building 2020, 20, 1 .

AMA Style

Nils Lykke Sørensen, Freja Nygaard Rasmussen, Turid Borgestrand Øien, Anne Kathrine Frandsen. Holistic sustainability: advancing interdisciplinary building design through tools and data in Denmark. Construction Economics and Building. 2020; 20 (2):1.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Nils Lykke Sørensen; Freja Nygaard Rasmussen; Turid Borgestrand Øien; Anne Kathrine Frandsen. 2020. "Holistic sustainability: advancing interdisciplinary building design through tools and data in Denmark." Construction Economics and Building 20, no. 2: 1.

Articles
Published: 31 March 2020 in Architectural Engineering and Design Management
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This study presents the environmental life cycle assessment of four low carbon design strategies applied in Danish, architectural practice. The subject of analysis is a set of five buildings erected within the same constrictions in terms of floor area, energy performance and construction costs. The tested design strategies were: use of recycled materials, design for extended durability of components, adaptable design, and design for reduction of operational energy demand. The results of the five buildings are compared with a reference building (i.e. a typical, Danish single-family dwelling). Results show that the recycling/upcycling strategy is the most effective in reducing the embodied carbon. The use of structural wood in the same design furthermore points to the use of wood as a viable low-carbon strategy. In combination, these two strategies result in an approximate 40% saving of life cycle embodied carbon compared to the reference. Using durable materials yields up to 30% lower embodied carbon compared to the reference, whereas a design for adaptability results in 17% lower embodied carbon. However, these results are sensitive to the scenarios made for the service lives of materials and the implemented disassembly solutions. In a life cycle carbon perspective, the emissions from energy use prove to be of importance, although depending on the modelling approaches of the energy mix. With the shrinking, global carbon budgets in mind, there is justified reason to holistically optimize the design of new buildings by integrating various design aspects addressing the whole life cycle of the building.

ACS Style

Freja Nygaard Rasmussen; Morten Birkved; Harpa Birgisdóttir. Low- carbon design strategies for new residential buildings – lessons from architectural practice. Architectural Engineering and Design Management 2020, 16, 374 -390.

AMA Style

Freja Nygaard Rasmussen, Morten Birkved, Harpa Birgisdóttir. Low- carbon design strategies for new residential buildings – lessons from architectural practice. Architectural Engineering and Design Management. 2020; 16 (5):374-390.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Freja Nygaard Rasmussen; Morten Birkved; Harpa Birgisdóttir. 2020. "Low- carbon design strategies for new residential buildings – lessons from architectural practice." Architectural Engineering and Design Management 16, no. 5: 374-390.

Journal article
Published: 05 March 2020 in Buildings and Cities
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ACS Style

Camilla Marlene Ernst Andersen; Kai Kanafani; Regitze Zimmermann; Freja Nygaard Rasmussen; Harpa Birgisdóttir. Comparison of GHG emissions from circular and conventional building components. Buildings and Cities 2020, 1, 379 .

AMA Style

Camilla Marlene Ernst Andersen, Kai Kanafani, Regitze Zimmermann, Freja Nygaard Rasmussen, Harpa Birgisdóttir. Comparison of GHG emissions from circular and conventional building components. Buildings and Cities. 2020; 1 (1):379.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Camilla Marlene Ernst Andersen; Kai Kanafani; Regitze Zimmermann; Freja Nygaard Rasmussen; Harpa Birgisdóttir. 2020. "Comparison of GHG emissions from circular and conventional building components." Buildings and Cities 1, no. 1: 379.

Journal article
Published: 30 December 2019 in Building and Environment
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The purpose of this study is to investigate absolute environmental sustainability in the built environment, by assessing whether contemporary environmentally optimized approaches to building design, with their associated consumption of resources and subsequent emissions, can be considered within the carrying capacity of Earth Systems. A life cycle assessment (LCA) was conducted for six dwellings to quantify their environmental footprints. Two methods for absolute environmental sustainability assessment were applied to the resulting life cycle inventories; one where the normalisation step applied normalisation factors reflecting carrying capacities of the Earth System and one where characterisation of elementary flows applied characterisation factors based on the Planetary Boundaries. For the assessment of environmental impact of each house in an absolute perspective, different sharing principles were applied to determine the share of the safe operating space that a single-family stand-alone dwelling should be assigned. The study finds that the approaches tested in two of the dwellings, namely reducing the energy consumption and recycling and reusing materials have the greatest potential to reach an absolute sustainable level of impact. The conclusions drawn are found to be dependent of the applied sharing principle used to assign a share of the safe operating space. Nevertheless, as the results indicate that in our current society absolute sustainability for buildings still appear to be out of reach, even with the best attempts at sustainable building design. It is clear that to achieve e.g. lower energy consumption and a cleaner energy mix, action is needed by consumers and politicians alike.

ACS Style

Camilla Ernst Andersen; Pernille Ohms; Freja Nygaard Rasmussen; Harpa Birgisdóttir; Morten Birkved; Michael Hauschild; Morten Ryberg. Assessment of absolute environmental sustainability in the built environment. Building and Environment 2019, 171, 106633 .

AMA Style

Camilla Ernst Andersen, Pernille Ohms, Freja Nygaard Rasmussen, Harpa Birgisdóttir, Morten Birkved, Michael Hauschild, Morten Ryberg. Assessment of absolute environmental sustainability in the built environment. Building and Environment. 2019; 171 ():106633.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Camilla Ernst Andersen; Pernille Ohms; Freja Nygaard Rasmussen; Harpa Birgisdóttir; Morten Birkved; Michael Hauschild; Morten Ryberg. 2019. "Assessment of absolute environmental sustainability in the built environment." Building and Environment 171, no. : 106633.

Journal article
Published: 28 November 2019 in Applied Energy
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Buildings are major sources of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and contributors to the climate crisis. To meet climate-change mitigation needs, one must go beyond operational energy consumption and related GHG emissions of buildings and address their full life cycle. This study investigates the global trends of GHG emissions arising across the life cycle of buildings by systematically compiling and analysing more than 650 life cycle assessment (LCA) case studies. The results, presented for different energy performance classes based on a final sample of 238 cases, show a clear reduction trend in life cycle GHG emissions due to improved operational energy performance. However, the analysis reveals an increase in relative and absolute contributions of so‐called ‘embodied’ GHG emissions, i.e., emissions arising from manufacturing and processing of building materials. While the average share of embodied GHG emissions from buildings following current energy performance regulations is approximately 20–25% of life cycle GHG emissions, this figure escalates to 45–50% for highly energy-efficient buildings and surpasses 90% in extreme cases. Furthermore, this study analyses GHG emissions at time of occurrence, highlighting the ‘carbon spike’ from building production. Relating the results to existing benchmarks for buildings’ GHG emissions in the Swiss SIA energy efficiency path shows that most cases exceed the target of 11.0 kgCO2eq/m2a. Considering global GHG reduction targets, these results emphasize the urgent need to reduce GHG emissions of buildings by optimizing both operational and embodied impacts. The analysis further confirmed a need for improving transparency and comparability of LCA studies.

ACS Style

Martin Röck; Marcella Ruschi Mendes Saade; Maria Balouktsi; Freja Nygaard Rasmussen; Harpa Birgisdottir; Rolf Frischknecht; Guillaume Habert; Thomas Lützkendorf; Alexander Passer. Embodied GHG emissions of buildings – The hidden challenge for effective climate change mitigation. Applied Energy 2019, 258, 114107 .

AMA Style

Martin Röck, Marcella Ruschi Mendes Saade, Maria Balouktsi, Freja Nygaard Rasmussen, Harpa Birgisdottir, Rolf Frischknecht, Guillaume Habert, Thomas Lützkendorf, Alexander Passer. Embodied GHG emissions of buildings – The hidden challenge for effective climate change mitigation. Applied Energy. 2019; 258 ():114107.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Martin Röck; Marcella Ruschi Mendes Saade; Maria Balouktsi; Freja Nygaard Rasmussen; Harpa Birgisdottir; Rolf Frischknecht; Guillaume Habert; Thomas Lützkendorf; Alexander Passer. 2019. "Embodied GHG emissions of buildings – The hidden challenge for effective climate change mitigation." Applied Energy 258, no. : 114107.

Conference paper
Published: 31 October 2019 in IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science
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The building sector is of major concern when seeking to reduce the environmental impact of our society. A common tool often used in certification systems for quantification of environmental impacts is Life Cycle Assessments (LCAs). LCAs are traditionally used for relative comparisons, i.e. to assess whether one product or service performs better than another. Recently, a method for absolute evaluations based on the Planetary Boundaries, was coupled with LCA in order to define the boundary between environmental sustainability and unsustainability. In this study Planetary Boundaries-based Life Cycle Impact Assessment method has been applied to a case study of six single family stand-alone dwellings to assess whether these buildings can be considered absolute sustainable relative to the Planetary Boundaries. The results from the assessment indicate that irrespective of the design strategy used for the six houses and future increase in the use of renewables for electricity and heat production, it is unlikely that any of these houses can be regarded as sustainable in absolute terms. This underlines that more radical changes are needed in the way buildings are constructed and used in order for buildings to become environmentally sustainable.

ACS Style

Pernille Ohms; Camilla Ernst Andersen; Freja Nygaard Rasmussen; Morten Ryberg; Michael Hauschild; Morten Birkved; Harpa Birgisdottir. Assessing buildings’ absolute environmental sustainability performance using LCA focusing on climate change impacts. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science 2019, 352, 012058 .

AMA Style

Pernille Ohms, Camilla Ernst Andersen, Freja Nygaard Rasmussen, Morten Ryberg, Michael Hauschild, Morten Birkved, Harpa Birgisdottir. Assessing buildings’ absolute environmental sustainability performance using LCA focusing on climate change impacts. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science. 2019; 352 (1):012058.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Pernille Ohms; Camilla Ernst Andersen; Freja Nygaard Rasmussen; Morten Ryberg; Michael Hauschild; Morten Birkved; Harpa Birgisdottir. 2019. "Assessing buildings’ absolute environmental sustainability performance using LCA focusing on climate change impacts." IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science 352, no. 1: 012058.

Journal article
Published: 30 September 2019 in Journal of Cleaner Production
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Buildings are responsible for a third of global greenhouse gas emissions. A large proportion of their life cycle impacts derives from emissions embedded in materials. Material reuse has the potential to reduce these embedded impacts, since reused materials often have smaller environmental footprints than primary materials. Institutional settings and the structure of the building sector pose multiple barriers to businesses developing and commercialising products based on reused materials. Although material reuse is claimed to create multidimensional values for several stakeholders, the implications on value creation are still insufficiently understood and considered in decision-making. This study presents a business model developed by a pioneering Scandinavian company offering three building products based on reused materials – windows, wood cladding, and concrete. Using a multi-methods approach, the study investigates and discusses implications of the business model in creating value for the firm, value chain partners, customers, and the environment. Findings indicate the business model has significant potential to ensure that reuse is price-competitive with linear production practices, to offer value for customers and partners in the value chain network, and to provide significant reductions in environmental impacts. If the business model were to be upscaled, implications for value creation at industry and macro-economic level should be further investigated.

ACS Style

Julia L.K. Nußholz; Freja Nygaard Rasmussen; Katherine Whalen; Andrius Plepys. Material reuse in buildings: Implications of a circular business model for sustainable value creation. Journal of Cleaner Production 2019, 245, 118546 .

AMA Style

Julia L.K. Nußholz, Freja Nygaard Rasmussen, Katherine Whalen, Andrius Plepys. Material reuse in buildings: Implications of a circular business model for sustainable value creation. Journal of Cleaner Production. 2019; 245 ():118546.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Julia L.K. Nußholz; Freja Nygaard Rasmussen; Katherine Whalen; Andrius Plepys. 2019. "Material reuse in buildings: Implications of a circular business model for sustainable value creation." Journal of Cleaner Production 245, no. : 118546.

Conference paper
Published: 06 September 2019 in IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science
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There is an increasing demand for Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) as a method for environmental impact and resource assessments of buildings. At early design stages, where major design decisions are made, the potential for improving the environmental performance using LCA is greatest. However, detailed building information is usually not available at this time. This paper presents the recent extension of LCAbyg, the official Danish building LCA-tool, integrating an LCA approach for situations, where building design and material choices are not yet fully determined. The tool assists the user in establishing a complete building inventory by providing a default component library including building services and a guide for estimating quantities. Default components in the library are based on the integrated product database Ökobaudat. A convenient generation and comparison of variants improves usability, while a new LCA design guide shall increase the uptake of LCA in larger parts of the building industry. The methodological choices of the approach are laid out and discussed. The presented approach is not limited for use in early stages, but may improve feasibility in building LCA in general as default and estimated values may be refined towards more detail in later stages of the project.

ACS Style

Kai Kanafani; Regitze Zimmermann; Freja Nygaard Rasmussen; H Birgisdóttir. Early Design Stage Building LCA using The LCAbyg Tool: New Strategies For Bridging The Data Gap. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science 2019, 323, 012117 .

AMA Style

Kai Kanafani, Regitze Zimmermann, Freja Nygaard Rasmussen, H Birgisdóttir. Early Design Stage Building LCA using The LCAbyg Tool: New Strategies For Bridging The Data Gap. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science. 2019; 323 (1):012117.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Kai Kanafani; Regitze Zimmermann; Freja Nygaard Rasmussen; H Birgisdóttir. 2019. "Early Design Stage Building LCA using The LCAbyg Tool: New Strategies For Bridging The Data Gap." IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science 323, no. 1: 012117.

Conference paper
Published: 06 September 2019 in IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science
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Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is used and accepted as a method to assess environmental impacts and resource use of buildings. In practice, LCA is typically used in stages where the design of the building is already finalized. However, LCA-calculations from early design stages can be used actively in design and optimization of the building. One of the obstacles to early stage LCA is that extensive data input on precise material types and amounts is needed, which is limited in early design stages. The simplifications needed for a designer in an early design LCA is addressed in a research project, where an extensive library of predefined building components and installations were developed and integrated into the existing Danish LCAbyg tool. The library assists the user in establishing a full building inventory by simple inputs of geometry of the building and a selection from the library of building element layers. However, the simplified approach to LCA of a building at early design stages inevitably affects results compared with results of a calculation made at later design stages where more, specific data is available. This paper presents an evaluation of building cases, modelled with the same background database and life cycle stages, using the simplified early design LCA approach and a detailed LCA approach. The evaluation includes testing of how well the predefined components in the early design approach fit with the case buildings and comparisons of the total material input and precision of the final LCA results.

ACS Style

Regitze Zimmermann; Kai Kanafani; Freja Nygaard Rasmussen; H Birgisdóttir. Early Design Stage Building LCA using the LCAbyg tool: Comparing Cases for Early Stage and Detailed LCA Approaches. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science 2019, 323, 012118 .

AMA Style

Regitze Zimmermann, Kai Kanafani, Freja Nygaard Rasmussen, H Birgisdóttir. Early Design Stage Building LCA using the LCAbyg tool: Comparing Cases for Early Stage and Detailed LCA Approaches. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science. 2019; 323 (1):012118.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Regitze Zimmermann; Kai Kanafani; Freja Nygaard Rasmussen; H Birgisdóttir. 2019. "Early Design Stage Building LCA using the LCAbyg tool: Comparing Cases for Early Stage and Detailed LCA Approaches." IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science 323, no. 1: 012118.

Conference paper
Published: 06 September 2019 in IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science
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The IEA EBC Annex 72 focuses on the assessment of the primary energy demand, greenhouse gas emissions and environmental impacts of buildings during production, construction, use (including repair and replacement) and end of life (dismantling), i.e. during the entire life cycle of buildings. In one of its activities, reference buildings (size, materialisation, operational energy demand, etc.) were defined on which the existing national assessment methods are applied using national (if available) databases and (national/regional) approaches. The "be2226" office building in Lustenau, Austria was selected as one of the reference buildings. TU Graz established a BIM model and quantified the amount of building elements as well as construction materials required and the operational energy demand. The building assessment was carried out using the same material and energy demand but applying the LCA approach used in the different countries represented by the participating Annex experts. The results of these assessments are compared in view of identifying major discrepancies. Preliminary findings show that the greenhouse gas emissions per kg of building material differ up to a factor of two and more. Major differences in the building assessments are observed in the transports to the construction site (imports) and the construction activities as well as in the greenhouse gas emissions of the operational energy demand (electricity). The experts document their practical difficulties and how they overcame them. The results of this activity are used to better target harmonisation efforts.

ACS Style

R Frischknecht; H Birgisdottir; C-U Chae; T Lützkendorf; A Passer; E Alsema; Maria Balouktsi; B Berg; D Dowdell; A García Martínez; G Habert; Alexander Hollberg; H König; S Lasvaux; C Llatas; Freja Nygaard Rasmussen; B Peuportier; L Ramseier; M Röck; B Soust Verdaguer; Z Szalay; R A Bohne; L Bragança; M Cellura; C K Chau; M Dixit; N Francart; V Gomes; L Huang; S Longo; A Lupíšek; J Martel; Ricardo Mateus; C Ouellet-Plamondon; Francesco Pomponi; P Ryklová; Damien Trigaux; W Yang. Comparison of the environmental assessment of an identical office building with national methods. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science 2019, 323, 012037 .

AMA Style

R Frischknecht, H Birgisdottir, C-U Chae, T Lützkendorf, A Passer, E Alsema, Maria Balouktsi, B Berg, D Dowdell, A García Martínez, G Habert, Alexander Hollberg, H König, S Lasvaux, C Llatas, Freja Nygaard Rasmussen, B Peuportier, L Ramseier, M Röck, B Soust Verdaguer, Z Szalay, R A Bohne, L Bragança, M Cellura, C K Chau, M Dixit, N Francart, V Gomes, L Huang, S Longo, A Lupíšek, J Martel, Ricardo Mateus, C Ouellet-Plamondon, Francesco Pomponi, P Ryklová, Damien Trigaux, W Yang. Comparison of the environmental assessment of an identical office building with national methods. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science. 2019; 323 (1):012037.

Chicago/Turabian Style

R Frischknecht; H Birgisdottir; C-U Chae; T Lützkendorf; A Passer; E Alsema; Maria Balouktsi; B Berg; D Dowdell; A García Martínez; G Habert; Alexander Hollberg; H König; S Lasvaux; C Llatas; Freja Nygaard Rasmussen; B Peuportier; L Ramseier; M Röck; B Soust Verdaguer; Z Szalay; R A Bohne; L Bragança; M Cellura; C K Chau; M Dixit; N Francart; V Gomes; L Huang; S Longo; A Lupíšek; J Martel; Ricardo Mateus; C Ouellet-Plamondon; Francesco Pomponi; P Ryklová; Damien Trigaux; W Yang. 2019. "Comparison of the environmental assessment of an identical office building with national methods." IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science 323, no. 1: 012037.

Journal article
Published: 02 July 2019 in Journal of Cleaner Production
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This paper publishes the results from a major five year International Energy Agency research project which investigated the reduction of embodied energy and greenhouse gas emissions over the whole life (‘cradle to grave’) of buildings. Annex 57 collated and analysed over 80 detailed quantitative and qualitative building case studies from the participating nations. For many years the multiple variations in methodological approach of case studies to assess the whole life embodied impacts of buildings have presented a major challenge for politicians and other decision makers. Any real change in design and construction practice has also proved elusive. This paper describes a modified research synthesis and meta analysis as a novel and valid method for drawing meaningful conclusions from large sets of significantly diverse studies. The quantitative analyses consider embodied impacts of the product stage, replacement, and end of life stages, of new and refurbished buildings, and of different building assemblies and construction materials. The product stage is shown to dominate in most cases, with the median value around two thirds of the whole life embodied impacts, with replacements the next highest with a median figure of around 25%; however replacements in five studies were over 50% of the whole life impacts. It should be noted that several life cycle stages are still missing from these studies. The case studies included eleven refurbishment projects, in which energy efficient measures and low carbon technologies were retrofitted to existing buildings; for these projects the median product stage impact was found to be just under half that for the new build projects. While further research is required to compare the operational energy use in the new and refurbished buildings, this suggests that such energy refurbishments have a significantly lower impact than new buildings. Several other studies considered the impacts from technical equipment and internal fixtures and fittings, both frequently excluded, and demonstrated that they can be responsible for up to 45% of the whole life embodied greenhouse gases and up to 48% of the whole life embodied energy. Finally, the paper combines the analysis of the quantitative case studies with that of qualitative studies, to explore the impact of contextual factors at both policy and project level in significantly reducing the embodied environmental impacts of buildings. The case studies have shown that planning authorities, major clients, developers, and individual designers, can all play an important role in reducing embodied impacts through encouraging innovation. The paper concludes with recommendations for policy makers, designers and LCA modelers which will support and effect real reductions in the whole life embodied impacts of buildings.

ACS Style

Alice M. Moncaster; Freja Nygaard Rasmussen; Tove Malmqvist; Aoife Houlihan Wiberg; Harpa Birgisdottir. Widening understanding of low embodied impact buildings: Results and recommendations from 80 multi-national quantitative and qualitative case studies. Journal of Cleaner Production 2019, 235, 378 -393.

AMA Style

Alice M. Moncaster, Freja Nygaard Rasmussen, Tove Malmqvist, Aoife Houlihan Wiberg, Harpa Birgisdottir. Widening understanding of low embodied impact buildings: Results and recommendations from 80 multi-national quantitative and qualitative case studies. Journal of Cleaner Production. 2019; 235 ():378-393.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Alice M. Moncaster; Freja Nygaard Rasmussen; Tove Malmqvist; Aoife Houlihan Wiberg; Harpa Birgisdottir. 2019. "Widening understanding of low embodied impact buildings: Results and recommendations from 80 multi-national quantitative and qualitative case studies." Journal of Cleaner Production 235, no. : 378-393.

Conference paper
Published: 21 June 2019 in IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science
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In the autumn of 2014, the Danish government presented a national strategy for the building sector. Sustainability was mentioned as one of five focus areas for the future political work within the sector. Subsequently, the development of a national Life Cycle Assessment tool for buildings was initiated, and the first version of LCAbyg was launched in 2015. The primary goal behind the development of LCAbyg has been, with judicious, intuitive and transparent visualization of LCA results, to increase building designer's awareness of the life cycle impacts of buildings, and to understand where, in the building life cycle, reductions of environmental impacts can be achieved. This paper describes the principles of the LCA tool in terms of the required input data for the building assessment, the calculation methods within the model and how the LCA results are presented to the user. The paper furthermore demonstrates how the tool enables the user to perform comparisons of different construction solutions and material uses, and elaborates on how the predefined visualization of results qualifies the designer to identify hotspots and to understand and mitigate the major impacts throughout the building's life cycle.

ACS Style

H Birgisdottir; Freja Nygaard Rasmussen. Development of LCAbyg: A National Life Cycle Assessment Tool for Buildings in Denmark. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science 2019, 290, 012039 .

AMA Style

H Birgisdottir, Freja Nygaard Rasmussen. Development of LCAbyg: A National Life Cycle Assessment Tool for Buildings in Denmark. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science. 2019; 290 (1):012039.

Chicago/Turabian Style

H Birgisdottir; Freja Nygaard Rasmussen. 2019. "Development of LCAbyg: A National Life Cycle Assessment Tool for Buildings in Denmark." IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science 290, no. 1: 012039.

Articles
Published: 16 May 2019 in Building Research & Information
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This study provides LCA reference benchmarks for residential buildings in Northern Italy and Denmark. Furthermore, the benchmark derivation process is analysed to highlight the trade-offs that relate to the methodological choices made by benchmark developers, considering the objectives of the stakeholders. Reference benchmarks for the two contexts are calculated based on national samples of residential buildings. A comparative analysis pinpoints the methodological factors regarding system boundaries, inventory requirements and databases that, from a calculation aspect, affect the benchmarks. Results thus highlight the uniqueness of each benchmarking system put into practice, and emphasize the need for clear calculation rules and transparency within each benchmark system. The identified trade-offs from the derivation process furthermore indicate the inherent need to balance the different interests relating to the stakeholders’ roles when applying the benchmark. The mapping of different trade-offs presented in this study provides benchmark stakeholders with an overview that allows for open discussion about which priorities and choices will fit a specific context of benchmark application.

ACS Style

Freja Nygaard Rasmussen; Sara Ganassali; Regitze Zimmermann; Monica Lavagna; Andrea Campioli; Harpa Birgisdóttir. LCA benchmarks for residential buildings in Northern Italy and Denmark – learnings from comparing two different contexts. Building Research & Information 2019, 47, 833 -849.

AMA Style

Freja Nygaard Rasmussen, Sara Ganassali, Regitze Zimmermann, Monica Lavagna, Andrea Campioli, Harpa Birgisdóttir. LCA benchmarks for residential buildings in Northern Italy and Denmark – learnings from comparing two different contexts. Building Research & Information. 2019; 47 (7):833-849.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Freja Nygaard Rasmussen; Sara Ganassali; Regitze Zimmermann; Monica Lavagna; Andrea Campioli; Harpa Birgisdóttir. 2019. "LCA benchmarks for residential buildings in Northern Italy and Denmark – learnings from comparing two different contexts." Building Research & Information 47, no. 7: 833-849.

Conference paper
Published: 24 February 2019 in IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science
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Within the ReSOLVE framework, the concept of 'Looping' materials in an efficient way is a crucial theme to ensure environmental sustainability of circular economy. This paper investigates how current calculation practice of building LCA from the EN 15804/15978 standards affects the global warming potential (GWP) of building designs where material loops have been in focus. In this study, we calculate the environmental potentials of circular building design based on two cases; 1) a building constructed from primarily upcycled materials, and 2) a building constructed with principles of design for disassembly (DfD). Results from the two cases point to the significance of the EN standards' allocation approach in which a system's use of recycling/reuse is merited, rather than meriting a system providing recyclable/reusable materials. Hence, the upcycling strategy results in lower GWP, especially from the production stage, whereas the DfD strategy does not realize an environmental advantage within the framework of the EN standards. Results further shows that even though concrete elements are notable components of the DfD building, developing DfD-solutions for these exact elements might not be the preferred focus for optimizing the environmental benefits provided by the building. Instead, DfD focus could be on shorter-lived elements of high benefit potentials.

ACS Style

Fn Rasmussen; M Birkved; H Birgisdóttir. Upcycling and Design for Disassembly – LCA of buildings employing circular design strategies. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science 2019, 225, 012040 .

AMA Style

Fn Rasmussen, M Birkved, H Birgisdóttir. Upcycling and Design for Disassembly – LCA of buildings employing circular design strategies. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science. 2019; 225 (1):012040.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Fn Rasmussen; M Birkved; H Birgisdóttir. 2019. "Upcycling and Design for Disassembly – LCA of buildings employing circular design strategies." IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science 225, no. 1: 012040.

Conference paper
Published: 24 February 2019 in IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering
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This paper investigates how the EU Level(s) can be adopted in Denmark. The study is limited to life cycle assessment (LCA) requirements within the Level(s) scheme. As a measure for the Danish building sector's LCA practice, the specifications for LCAbyg, the official Danish building LCA tool, is used. In 2017, the European Commission's Joint Research Centre has launched Level(s) as a voluntary programme of sustainable building indicators based on existing EU standards and initiatives. Level(s)' original value, beyond the mere aggregation of existing standards, is the selection of the most relevant indicators according to EU and national policies, the graduation of indicators into three levels of comprehensiveness as well as providing original definitions and guidance for their practical application. In the absence of mandatory EU regulation for sustainable buildings, Level(s) is representing a new EU reference for sustainable building performance. The paper presents requirements and criteria given by all LCA-related indicators including building component's environmental impacts, resource use and waste. In general, these definitions are based on international standardisation. In a next step, Level(s) original definitions for procedures, for which no standard definitions exist, are isolated and presented. These extra definitions might conflict with existing schemes and tools such as LCAbyg, which are based on the more broad technical standards. Level(s) extra definitions are isolated and presented I order to get an overview on the difference between Level(s) and standardisation in order to develop existing or future initiatives to comply with Level(s). Regarding LCAbyg, it shows that the tool may be used for complying with Level(s) LCA criteria. However, if LCAbyg and Level(s) shall contribute to a broader use of building LCA in the building sector, a greater integration of guidance and calculation tool might increase feasibility and ease of method. Proposals for deeper Level(s) support in LCAbyg are given.

ACS Style

Kai Kanafani; Freja Nygaard Rasmussen; Regitze Kjaer Zimmermann; Harpa Birgisdottir. Adopting The EU Sustainable Performance Scheme Level(s) In The Danish Building Sector. IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering 2019, 471, 092070 .

AMA Style

Kai Kanafani, Freja Nygaard Rasmussen, Regitze Kjaer Zimmermann, Harpa Birgisdottir. Adopting The EU Sustainable Performance Scheme Level(s) In The Danish Building Sector. IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering. 2019; 471 (9):092070.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Kai Kanafani; Freja Nygaard Rasmussen; Regitze Kjaer Zimmermann; Harpa Birgisdottir. 2019. "Adopting The EU Sustainable Performance Scheme Level(s) In The Danish Building Sector." IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering 471, no. 9: 092070.

Journal article
Published: 09 November 2018 in Resources, Conservation and Recycling
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Buildings are responsible for a third of global greenhouse gas emissions, with much of their life cycle impacts stemming from embodied impacts of building materials. Both at EU and Member State level, circular economy and resource efficiency policies are promoting production of lower-impact building materials with secondary material input. However, secondary material strategies do not result in carbon saving by default, and depend on businesses developing effective and economic applications that can overcome the many barriers to closing material loops. This paper aims to advance understanding of the relevance of secondary material for decarbonisation of the building sector, as well as the interplay of business model innovation and policy instruments in this transition. We used a comparative case study of three pioneering Scandinavian companies that produce circular building materials to estimate the carbon saving potential of using secondary material. We also examined business model innovations to implement strategies, and companies’ experienced and desired policies to help remove barriers. The results show clearly that all three cases offer potential for carbon savings. As the savings vary significantly, findings suggest that careful consideration of affected processes and markets is a key to attaining carbon savings. Business model innovations to enable secondary material use involve establishing key partnerships to access secondary materials, developing recovery process and technology, targeting customer segments that value lower environmental impacts, and considering life cycle costs. Public policies that can help companies remove barriers include 1) incorporating reuse of higher material value in construction and demolition waste targets, and 2) incentivising waste collection and recovery markets to offer recovered material at higher value.

ACS Style

Julia L.K. Nußholz; Freja Nygaard Rasmussen; Leonidas Milios. Circular building materials: Carbon saving potential and the role of business model innovation and public policy. Resources, Conservation and Recycling 2018, 141, 308 -316.

AMA Style

Julia L.K. Nußholz, Freja Nygaard Rasmussen, Leonidas Milios. Circular building materials: Carbon saving potential and the role of business model innovation and public policy. Resources, Conservation and Recycling. 2018; 141 ():308-316.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Julia L.K. Nußholz; Freja Nygaard Rasmussen; Leonidas Milios. 2018. "Circular building materials: Carbon saving potential and the role of business model innovation and public policy." Resources, Conservation and Recycling 141, no. : 308-316.

Journal article
Published: 01 May 2018 in Energy and Buildings
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The dominance of operational energy and related greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of most existing buildings is decreasing in new construction, when primary fossil energy of building operation decreases as result of the implementation of energy efficiency measures as well as a decarbonisation of national energy mixes. Stakeholders therefore have a growing interest in understanding the possibilities for reducing embodied impacts in buildings. In the IEA EBC project ‘Annex 57’ a broad call for case studies was launched with the aim to identify design strategies for reducing embodied energy and GHG emissions (EEG) from buildings. The aim of this paper is to identify and provide a collected and comprehensive overview of quantitative reduction potentials of the particular EEG reduction strategies which should be considered by the stakeholders engaged in, and with the capacity to influence the outcome of, individual building projects. This is done by a systematic analysis of the Annex 57 case study collection as well as additional scientific literature. While it should be noted that the actual EEG savings at building level illustrated in this collection of studies are only applicable to each specific case, importantly this multiple cross-case analysis has provided rigorous evidence of the considerable potential to reduce embodied impacts in the design and construction of new and refurbished buildings.

ACS Style

Tove Malmqvist; Marie Nehasilova; Alice Moncaster; Harpa Birgisdottir; Freja Nygaard Rasmussen; Aoife Houlihan Wiberg; José Potting. Design and construction strategies for reducing embodied impacts from buildings – Case study analysis. Energy and Buildings 2018, 166, 35 -47.

AMA Style

Tove Malmqvist, Marie Nehasilova, Alice Moncaster, Harpa Birgisdottir, Freja Nygaard Rasmussen, Aoife Houlihan Wiberg, José Potting. Design and construction strategies for reducing embodied impacts from buildings – Case study analysis. Energy and Buildings. 2018; 166 ():35-47.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Tove Malmqvist; Marie Nehasilova; Alice Moncaster; Harpa Birgisdottir; Freja Nygaard Rasmussen; Aoife Houlihan Wiberg; José Potting. 2018. "Design and construction strategies for reducing embodied impacts from buildings – Case study analysis." Energy and Buildings 166, no. : 35-47.