Liposomes carry various compounds with applications in pharmaceutical, food, and cosmetic fields, and the administration route is especially parenteral, oral, or transdermal. Liposomes are used to preserve and release the internal components, thus maintaining the properties of the compounds, the stability and shelf life of the encapsulated products, and their functional benefits. The main problem in obtaining liposomes at the industrial level is their low stability due to fragile phospholipid membranes. To increase the stability of liposomes, phospholipid bilayers have been modified or different coating materials have been developed and studied, both for liposomes with applications in the pharmaceutical field and liposomes in the food field. In the cosmetic field, liposomes need no additional coating because the liposomal formulation is intended to have a fast penetration into the skin. The aim of this review is to provide current knowledge regarding physical and chemical factors that influence stability, coating materials for liposomes with applications in the pharmaceutical and food fields to increase the stability of liposomes containing various sensitive compounds, and absorption of the liposomes and commercial liposomal products obtained through various technologies available on the market.

This study aims to characterize the pectic oligosaccharides (POSs) generated from enzymatically hydrolyzed citrus peel pectin using a selected enzyme. Pectinex Ultra AFP was used to depolymerize citrus peel pectin into POSs. The POSs were analyzed using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and liquid chromatography coupled with a mass spectrometer (LC/MS) methodology to determine the composition of monosaccharides and the average molar mass distribution based on the retention time. The identified fractions were predominantly neutral sugars (rhamnose, glucose, and galactose) and acidic sugars (galacturonic acid), with corresponding mole percentages of 8.67%, 10.28%, 74.33%, and 6.72%, respectively. The degree of polymerization (DP) was in the range of DP3–DP8, containing three (trimers) to eight (octamers) monomeric units. The low DP indicates an advanced degree of enzymatic hydrolysis of pectin up to the level of pectic POSs.

The valorization of cheese whey, a rich by-product of the dairy industry that is rich in lactose (approx. 70%), proteins (14%), and minerals (9%), represents a promising approach for microbial fermentation. With global whey production exceeding 200 million tons annually, the high biochemical oxygen demand underlines the important need for sustainable processing alternatives. This review explores the biotechnological potential of whey as a fermentation medium by examining its chemical composition, microbial interactions, and ability to support the synthesis of valuable metabolites. Functional microorganisms such as lactic acid bacteria (Lactobacillus helveticus, L. acidophilus), yeasts (Kluyveromyces marxianus), actinobacteria, and filamentous fungi (Aspergillus oryzae) have demonstrated the ability to efficiently convert whey into a wide range of bioactive compounds, including organic acids, exopolysaccharides (EPSs), bacteriocins, enzymes, and peptides. To enhance microbial growth and metabolite production, whey fermentation can be carried out using various techniques, including batch, fed-batch, continuous and immobilized cell fermentation, and membrane bioreactors. These bioprocessing methods improve substrate utilization and metabolite yields, contributing to the efficient utilization of whey. These bioactive compounds have diverse applications in food, pharmaceuticals, agriculture, and biofuels and strengthen the role of whey as a sustainable biotechnological resource. Patents and clinical studies confirm the diverse bioactivities of whey-derived metabolites and their industrial potential. Whey peptides provide antihypertensive, antioxidant, immunomodulatory, and antimicrobial benefits, while bacteriocins and EPSs act as natural preservatives in foods and pharmaceuticals. Also, organic acids such as lactic acid and propionic acid act as biopreservatives that improve food safety and provide health-promoting formulations. These results emphasize whey’s significant industrial relevance as a sustainable, cost-efficient substrate for the production of high-quality bioactive compounds in the food, pharmaceutical, agricultural, and bioenergy sectors.

The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of enzymatic hydrolysis using α-amylase from Bacillus amyloliquefaciens on the mechanical properties of starch-based films. The process parameters of enzymatic hydrolysis and the degree of hydrolysis (DH) were optimized using a Box–Behnken design (BBD) and response surface methodology (RSM). The mechanical properties of the resulting hydrolyzed corn starch films (tensile strain at break, tensile stress at break, and Young’s modulus) were evaluated. The results showed that the optimum DH for hydrolyzed corn starch films to achieve improved mechanical properties of the film-forming solutions was achieved at a corn starch to water ratio of 1:2.8, an enzyme to substrate ratio of 357 U/g, and an incubation temperature of 48 °C. Under the optimized conditions, the hydrolyzed corn starch film had a higher water absorption index of 2.32 ± 0.112% compared to the native corn starch film (control) of 0.81 ± 0.352%. The hydrolyzed corn starch films were more transparent than the control sample, with a light transmission of 78.5 ± 0.121% per mm. Fourier-transformed infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) analysis showed that the enzymatically hydrolyzed corn starch films had a more compact and solid structure in terms of molecular bonds, and the contact angle was also higher, at 79.21 ± 0.171° for this sample. The control sample had a higher melting point than the hydrolyzed corn starch film, as indicated by the significant difference in the temperature of the first endothermic event between the two films. The atomic force microscopy (AFM) characterization of the hydrolyzed corn starch film showed intermediate surface roughness. A comparison of the data from the two samples showed that the hydrolyzed corn starch film had better mechanical properties than the control sample, with a greater change in the storage modulus over a wider temperature range and higher values for the loss modulus and tan delta, indicating that the hydrolyzed corn starch film had better energy dissipation properties, as shown by thermal analysis. The improved mechanical properties of the resulting film of hydrolyzed corn starch were attributed to the enzymatic hydrolysis process, which breaks the starch molecules into smaller units, resulting in increased chain flexibility, improved film-forming ability, and stronger intermolecular bonds.

The role of prebiotics and probiotics in promoting gut health is increasingly recognized in food development and nutrition research. This study explored the enhancement of probiotic viability in the food industry through microencapsulated synbiotics, focusing on Lactiplantibacillus plantarum NCIMB 11974 with fructooligosaccharides (FOSs) and inulin as prebiotics. The effect of encapsulation in a chitosan-coated alginate matrix on probiotic survival under simulated gastrointestinal conditions showed a significant effect of 2% FOS concentration on the growth of Lactiplantibacillus plantarum NCIMB 11974. The optimization of microencapsulation parameters by the Taguchi method revealed a 2% sodium alginate concentration, a nozzle size of 200 µm, and a concentration of 0.4% chitosan solution as ideal, producing microcapsules with an estimated average diameter of 212 µm. Viability assessments in simulated gastric juice and simulated intestinal juice showed that chitosan-coated alginate microcapsules notably enhanced probiotic survival, achieving log 8 CFU mL⁻¹ viability in both environments, a marked improvement over the uncoated variant. The study emphasizes the importance of microencapsulation, particularly by sodium alginate and chitosan, as a viable strategy to improve the survival and delivery of probiotics through the digestive system. By improving the stability and survivability of probiotics, microencapsulation promises to expand the use of synbiotics in various foods, contributing to the development of functional foods with health-promoting properties.