The worldwide increase of food-borne infections with antibiotic resistant pathogens constitutes a major public health problem. Therefore, this study aimed to determine the prevalence, antibiogram, virulence genes profiles and integron characteristics of non-typhoidal Salmonella spp. isolated from poultry meat and diarrhoeic patients in Egypt. A total of 150 samples comprising (100 poultry meat and 50 diarrhoeic patients’ stool) were examined for the presence of Salmonella spp. using culture methods followed by biochemical and serological identification of the isolates. All Salmonella strains were tested for their susceptibility to the antibiotics using disk diffusion method and screened for the presence of virulence genes and class I integrons using PCR. The overall prevalence of Salmonella spp. in poultry meat samples was 10 % compared to 4 % in diarrhoeic patients. All the isolates were serologically identified into Salmonella Typhimurium (seven isolates), S. Derby, S. Kiel, S. Rubislaw (one isolate, each) and untypable strains (two isolates). Antibiotic susceptibility testing showed a higher resistance of the total isolates to erythromycin and tetracycline (100 %, each), followed by amoxicillin-clavulanic acid (91.7 %), trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (83.3 %), streptomycin, nalidixic acid, ampicillin-sulbactam (75 %, each), gentamycin, ampicillin (66.7 %, each), chloramphenicol (58.3 %), ciprofloxacin (25 %) and ceftriaxone (16.7 %). Virulence genes profiles revealed the presence of sopB gene in five Salmonella strains isolated from poultry meat (n = 3) and humans (n = 2). Moreover, pefA was only identified in three isolates from poultry meat. On the other hand, S. Kiel and S. Typhimurium (one isolate, each) were harboring hilA and stn genes, respectively. Class 1 integrons were detected in all Salmonella spp. with variable amplicon sizes ranged from 650–3000 bp. Sequencing of these amplicons revealed the presence of gene cassettes harboring aac(3)-Id, aadA2, aadA4, aadA7, sat, dfrA15, lnuF and estX resistance genes. Nucleotide sequence analysis showed point mutations in the aac(3)-Id of S. Derby, aadA2, estX-sat genes of S. Typhimurium. Meanwhile, frame shift mutation was observed in aadA7 genes of S. Typhimurium. Increasing rate of antimicrobial resistance and class 1 integrons among multidrug resistant Salmonella spp. has prompted calls for the reduction of antimicrobial use in livestock to prevent future emergence of resistance.

Aims This work aimed to determine the occurrence, virulence, antibiogram, carbapenem resistance genes and susceptibility to disinfectants of P. aeruginosa isolated from animals, environment, and workers in intensive farms. Methods and Results A total of 610 samples from intensive beef cattle and sheep farms in Kafr El Sheikh Governorate, Egypt were screened for the presence of P. aeruginosa using bacteriological assays. The isolates were characterized by PCR and tested for susceptibility to antibiotics using disk diffusion method and disinfectants by quantitative suspension test. Sixty P. aeruginosa isolates were recovered in this study and all isolates harbored at least one of the virulence genes tested. Human P. aeruginosa isolates were highly resistant to cephalosporins, fluroquinolones, aminoglycosides, carbapenems and penicillins+β-lactamase inhibitors than non-human isolates. Colistin resistance was higher in non-human than human P. aeruginosa isolates, while low resistance to aztreonam was observed in non-human and human isolates. Carbapenem resistant P. aeruginosa (CRPA) strains were recovered from workers (56.5%), sheep (8.3%) and cattle (8.3%). All CRPA harbored at least one of the carbapenem resistance genes tested and most of them showed multidrug-resistance (MDR) or extensive drug-resistance (XDR) phenotypes. Glutaraldehyde 1% and hydrogen peroxide 3% eliminated P. aeruginosa completely in absence and presence of organic matter within short contact time compared with other disinfectants. Conclusions This study reported the occurrence of CRPA in animals and workers in intensive farms. Glutaraldehyde and hydrogen peroxide were the most effective disinfectants against P. aeruginosa. Significance and impact of the study The occurrence of CRPA in intensive livestock farms is a serious challenge that threatens animal and human health and increases the risk of P. aeruginosa infection in the community. Therefore, it is vital to control the spread of CRPA by banning or restricting the use of antibiotics and applying proper cleaning and disinfection protocols in livestock farms.

Wars have devastating effects on all the components of the One Health approach: humans, animals, and ecosystems. Wars and the resulting migratory waves massively disrupt normal animal health services and surveillance. Among other consequences, they adversely impact the early detection, prevention, and control of animal diseases. Uncontrolled movement of animals or their undisposed carcasses, the destruction of wildlife habitats, and the increased interface between humans, wildlife, and domestic animals contribute to uncontrolled transmission and spread of zoonotic pathogens from animals to humans. In the last millennium, zoonotic diseases such as the “Black Death” were triggered by devastating wars and led to the deaths of a large fraction of the human population. However, also recent and ongoing wars carry the risk of an uncontrollable increase in zoonotic diseases. The most significant zoonotic diseases reported during the recent wars are African swine fever, highly pathogenic avian influenza, rabies, leptospirosis, and brucellosis, as well as foodborne and waterborne zoonotic diseases. Indeed, alarming rates of infections by antimicrobial‐resistant pathogens such as Mycobacterium tuberculosis go along with wars, as seen in the current Ukraine–Russia conflict. Considering human migration, foodborne and waterborne zoonotic diseases are key health threats for refugees due to the consumption of unsafe food, lack of safe water, and disruption of the water supply and sanitation system. This review summarizes the potential factors and some data associated with the increased risk of zoonotic disease emergence and transmission during recent and ongoing conflicts.

Aims This study aimed to determine the toxin genotypes, virulence determinants, and antibiogram of Clostridium perfringens isolated from poultry, animals, and humans. Biofilm formation and the efficacy of disinfectants on C. perfringens biofilms were studied. Methods and Results Thirty C. perfringens isolates (20 clinical and 10 from chicken carcasses) were genotyped by PCR and all isolates were genotype A (cpa+). The overall prevalence of cpe, cpb2, netB and tpeL virulence genes was 6.7, 56.7, 56.7 and 36.7%, respectively. Twenty‐one isolates (70%) were multidrug‐resistant, 8 (26.7%) were extensive drug‐resistant and one isolate (3.3%) was pan drug‐resistant. The average multiple antibiotic resistance index was 0.7. Biofilms were produced by 63.3% of C. perfringens isolates and categorized as weak (36.7%), moderate (16.7%) and strong (10%). Sodium hypochlorite caused significant reduction in C. perfringens biofilms (P<0.0001). Conclusions All C. perfringens strains in this study were type A, resistant to multiple antibiotics and most of them were biofilm producers. Sodium hypochlorite showed higher efficacy in reducing C. perfringens biofilms. Significance and impact of the study This study reported the efficacy of disinfectants in reducing C. perfringens biofilms of economic and public health concern and recommends application on surfaces in farms, food processing plants and slaughterhouses.