The successful resolution of inflammation is dependent upon the coordinated transition from the initial recruitment of neutrophils to a more sustained population of mononuclear cells. IL-6, which signals via the common receptor subunit gp130, represents a crucial checkpoint regulator of neutrophil trafficking during the inflammatory response by orchestrating chemokine production and leukocyte apoptosis. However, the relative contribution of specific IL-6-dependent signaling pathways to these processes remains unresolved. To define the receptor-mediated signaling events responsible for IL-6-driven neutrophil trafficking, we used a series of gp130 knockin mutant mice displaying altered IL-6-signaling capacities in an experimental model of acute peritoneal inflammation. Hyperactivation of STAT1 and STAT3 in gp130^Y757F/Y757F mice led to a more rapid clearance of neutrophils, and this coincided with a pronounced down-modulation in production of the neutrophil-attracting chemokine CXCL1/KC. By contrast, the proportion of apoptotic neutrophils in the inflammatory infiltrate remained unaffected. In gp130^Y757F/Y757F mice lacking IL-6, neutrophil trafficking and CXCL1/KC levels were normal, and this corresponded with a reduction in the level of STAT1/3 activity. Furthermore, monoallelic ablation of Stat3 in gp130^Y757F/Y757F mice specifically reduced STAT3 activity and corrected both the rapid clearance of neutrophils and impaired CXCL1/KC production. Conversely, genetic deletion of Stat1 in gp130^Y757F/Y757F mice failed to rescue the altered responses observed in gp130^Y757F/Y757F mice. Collectively, these data genetically define that IL-6-driven signaling via STAT3, but not STAT1, limits the inflammatory recruitment of neutrophils, and therefore represents a critical event for the termination of the innate immune response.

Fibrosis in response to tissue damage or persistent inflammation is a pathological hallmark of many chronic degenerative diseases. By using a model of acute peritoneal inflammation, we have examined how repeated inflammatory activation promotes fibrotic tissue injury. In this context, fibrosis was strictly dependent on interleukin-6 (IL-6). Repeat inflammation induced IL-6-mediated T helper 1 (Th1) cell effector commitment and the emergence of STAT1 (signal transducer and activator of transcription-1) activity within the peritoneal membrane. Fibrosis was not observed in mice lacking interferon-γ (IFN-γ), STAT1, or RAG-1. Here, IFN-γ and STAT1 signaling disrupted the turnover of extracellular matrix by metalloproteases. Whereas IL-6-deficient mice resisted fibrosis, transfer of polarized Th1 cells or inhibition of MMP activity reversed this outcome. Thus, IL-6 causes compromised tissue repair by shifting acute inflammation into a more chronic profibrotic state through induction of Th1 cell responses as a consequence of recurrent inflammation.

Whooping cough caused by Bordetella pertussis is a re-emerging infectious disease despite the introduction of safer acellular pertussis vaccines (Pa). One explanation for this is that Pa are less protective than the more reactogenic whole cell pertussis vaccines (Pw) that they replaced. Although Pa induce potent antibody responses, and protection has been found to be associated with high concentrations of circulating IgG against vaccine antigens, it has not been firmly established that host protection induced with this vaccine is mediated solely by humoral immunity. The aim of this study was to examine the relative contribution of Th1 and Th17 cells in host immunity to infection with B. pertussis and in immunity induced by immunization with Pw and Pa and to use this information to help rationally design a more effective Pa. Our findings demonstrate that Th1 and Th17 both function in protective immunity induced by infection with B. pertussis or immunization with Pw. In contrast, a current licensed Pa, administered with alum as the adjuvant, induced Th2 and Th17 cells, but weak Th1 responses. We found that IL-1 signalling played a central role in protective immunity induced with alum-adsorbed Pa and this was associated with the induction of Th17 cells. Pa generated strong antibody and Th2 responses, but was fully protective in IL-4-defective mice, suggesting that Th2 cells were dispensable. In contrast, Pa failed to confer protective immunity in IL-17A-defective mice. Bacterial clearance mediated by Pa-induced Th17 cells was associated with cell recruitment to the lungs after challenge. Finally, protective immunity induced by an experimental Pa could be enhanced by substituting alum with a TLR agonist that induces Th1 cells. Our findings demonstrate that alum promotes protective immunity through IL-1β-induced IL-17A production, but also reveal that optimum protection against B. pertussis requires induction of Th1, but not Th2 cells. The bacterium Bordetella pertussis causes whooping cough, a severe and often lethal respiratory infection in humans. The disease was largely controlled through vaccination with whole cell pertussis vaccines (Pw). However, Pw had side effects and were replaced in developed countries in the 1990s with safer acellular pertussis vaccines (Pa). Unfortunately this has now been linked with a recent resurgence of whooping cough. We have used a mouse model to examine the mechanism of host immunity against B. pertussis. We examined the type of immune responses induced with Pa compared with Pw in an attempt to identify its shortcomings and to design a more effective vaccine. Traditionally it had been considered that antibodies mediate protection induced with pertussis vaccines. However, we found that blood lymphocytes, in particular a subpopulation of T cells called Th17 cells that secrete a cytokine called IL-17, play a critical role in host immunity induced by Pa. In contrast, Pw induce Th17 cells but also another T cell subtype called Th1 cells, which are also required for optimum immunity. Finally, we rationally designed a new vaccine using a formulation that induces Th1 cells and found that this was highly effective in conferring protective immunity.

Pneumolysin (PLY) is a key Streptococcus pneumoniae virulence factor and potential candidate for inclusion in pneumococcal subunit vaccines. Dendritic cells (DC) play a key role in the initiation and instruction of adaptive immunity, but the effects of PLY on DC have not been widely investigated. Endotoxin-free PLY enhanced costimulatory molecule expression on DC but did not induce cytokine secretion. These effects have functional significance as adoptive transfer of DC exposed to PLY and antigen resulted in stronger antigen-specific T cell proliferation than transfer of DC exposed to antigen alone. PLY synergized with TLR agonists to enhance secretion of the proinflammatory cytokines IL-12, IL-23, IL-6, IL-1β, IL-1α and TNF-α by DC and enhanced cytokines including IL-17A and IFN-γ by splenocytes. PLY-induced DC maturation and cytokine secretion by DC and splenocytes was TLR4-independent. Both IL-17A and IFN-γ are required for protective immunity to pneumococcal infection and intranasal infection of mice with PLY-deficient pneumococci induced significantly less IFN-γ and IL-17A in the lungs compared to infection with wild-type bacteria. IL-1β plays a key role in promoting IL-17A and was previously shown to mediate protection against pneumococcal infection. The enhancement of IL-1β secretion by whole live S. pneumoniae and by PLY in DC required NLRP3, identifying PLY as a novel NLRP3 inflammasome activator. Furthermore, NLRP3 was required for protective immunity against respiratory infection with S. pneumoniae. These results add significantly to our understanding of the interactions between PLY and the immune system. Streptococcus pneumoniae (pneumococcus) is a pathogen of global significance, causing diseases including pneumonia, meningitis and septicaemia. In order to develop improved pneumococcal vaccines it is essential to understand how the bacterium interacts with the host immune system. Pneumococci produce a range of pathogenicity factors, among which the toxin pneumolysin plays a central role and has potential as a vaccine candidate. Here, we demonstrate that pneumolysin can directly activate innate immune cells and dramatically amplify the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines. These enhancing effects of the toxin do not require Toll-like receptor (TLR)4. In particular, the toxin exerts a potent effect on interleukin (IL)-1, which is an endogenous pyrogen and powerful activator of IL-17A production. This effect results from activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome complex and NLRP3 is required for protection against the pathogen in vivo. To induce protective immunity against pneumococci, IFN-γ and IL-17A are thought to be essential. We show that pneumolysin plays a key role in promoting these cytokines both in vitro and in vivo during respiratory infection. The results add significantly to our understanding of the interactions between pneumococci and the immune system and support investigations into the inclusion of pneumolysin or its derivatives in novel pneumococcal vaccines.

Interleukin (IL)-6 signaling through its soluble receptor (IL-6 transsignaling) directs transition between innate and acquired immune responses by orchestrating the chemokine-directed attraction and apoptotic clearance of leukocytes. Through analysis of mononuclear cell infiltration in WT and IL-6-deficient mice during peritoneal inflammation, we now report that IL-6 selectively governs T cell infiltration by regulating chemokine secretion (CXCL10, CCL4, CCL5, CCL11, and CCL17) and chemokine receptor (CCR3, CCR4, CCR5, and CXCR3) expression on the CD3⁺infiltrate. Although blockade of IL-6 trans-signaling prevented chemokine release, chemokine receptor expression remained unaltered suggesting that this response is regulated by IL-6 itself. To dissect the signaling events promoting T cell migration, inflammation was established in knock-in mice expressing mutated forms of the universal signal-transducing element for IL-6-related cytokines gp130. In mice (gp130^Y757F/Y757F) deficient in SHP2 and SOCS3 binding, but presenting hyperactivation of STAT1/3, T cell recruitment and CCL5 expression was enhanced. Conversely, both of these parameters were suppressed in mice with ablated gp130-mediated STAT1/3 activation (gp130^{ΔSTAT/ΔSTAT}). T cell migration was related to STAT3 activity, because monoallelic deletion ofStat3ingp130^Y757F/Y757Fmice (gp130^Y757F/Y757F:Stat3^+/-) corrected the exaggerated responses observed ingp130^Y757F/Y757Fmice. Consequently, STAT3 plays a defining role in IL-6-mediated T cell migration.