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Since 2001, growing numbers of American destinations have been combating crises such as terrorist attacks, floods, pandemics, volcanic eruptions, mass shootings, hurricanes, coastal pollution and wildfires. Due to the relative quick recoveries of American cities and states, we believe their experience in handling destination image during and following tourism crises can offer helpful insights for practitioners and academics. The manuscript’s goal is to analyse how American officials and marketers have tried to repair their place’s image. Using qualitative content analysis of news reports, websites and recovery campaigns, along with the ‘multi-step model for altering place image’, this study examines strategies used by American destinations during 2001–2020 to restore tourism. To date, only several studies have been written about the subject, and those were primarily analyses of specific case studies. Therefore, a multi-case study is needed in order to formulate broad insights regarding the recovery strategies of American destinations. The findings reveal the use of three kinds of image repair strategies: source, message and audience. In addition to these strategies, the study found a number of factors that influence the image recovery efforts; they are resource allocation, cooperation, involvement of various players, quick response time and holistic crisis management policy.
Eli Avraham. From 9/11 through Katrina to Covid-19: crisis recovery campaigns for American destinations. Current Issues in Tourism 2020, 1 -15.
AMA StyleEli Avraham. From 9/11 through Katrina to Covid-19: crisis recovery campaigns for American destinations. Current Issues in Tourism. 2020; ():1-15.
Chicago/Turabian StyleEli Avraham. 2020. "From 9/11 through Katrina to Covid-19: crisis recovery campaigns for American destinations." Current Issues in Tourism , no. : 1-15.
Researchers to date have presented strategies and theoretical models built mainly on the efforts of destinations in the developing world to recover from tourism crises following terror attacks. As terrorism has expanded to Europe after 2014, it is interesting to analyze the strategies used by European officials to repair their destinations’ images. To date, only several studies have been written about the subject, and those were primarily analyzes of specific case studies. Therefore, a multi-case study is needed. Using a qualitative content analysis of advertisements, websites, media reports, digital marketing and ‘the multi-step model for altering place image,’ the study examines strategies used to bring back tourists after 89 terror attacks by European destinations between the years 2014-2019. The analysis reveals a major use of message strategies (‘business as usual’, crisis mitigation, initiating events and new attractions, image expansion, and encouragement of film production). The study also reveals a minor use of source strategies (physical threats of news people or media blockage) and audience strategies as well (new audience expansion, emphasis of similar values).
Eli Avraham. Combating tourism crisis following terror attacks: image repair strategies for European destinations since 2014. Current Issues in Tourism 2020, 24, 1079 -1092.
AMA StyleEli Avraham. Combating tourism crisis following terror attacks: image repair strategies for European destinations since 2014. Current Issues in Tourism. 2020; 24 (8):1079-1092.
Chicago/Turabian StyleEli Avraham. 2020. "Combating tourism crisis following terror attacks: image repair strategies for European destinations since 2014." Current Issues in Tourism 24, no. 8: 1079-1092.
In recent decades, more and more countries have become involved in violent conflicts with non-state actors (NSAs), such as Al-Qaeda and ISIS. One of the main reasons why democratic states find it difficult to achieve victory in such asymmetrical conflicts is the tendency of NSAs to work within civilian populations; when democratic states try to fight the NSAs, they lose in the media battle, which tends to focus on civilian casualties. Photos of dead civilians and destruction lead to increasing criticism of the democratic state. As can be expected, state representatives try to restore their state’s media image. The article integrates theories and models from crisis communication and image repair to suggest a new model that examines media strategies used by state representatives during asymmetrical conflicts. The case study is based mainly on qualitative content analysis backed up by quantitative analysis of interviews given by Israeli representatives to the non-Israeli English media during the Gaza conflict in the summer of 2014. According to the model, a state’s representatives can use three kinds of strategies to repair their country image: source, message, and audience. The model can be used to analyze the image repair efforts of democratic countries during asymmetrical conflicts.
Lior Tabak; Eli Avraham. Country Image Repair Strategies During an Asymmetrical Conflict: An Analysis of the Gaza Conflict in 2014. International Journal of Strategic Communication 2018, 12, 237 -251.
AMA StyleLior Tabak, Eli Avraham. Country Image Repair Strategies During an Asymmetrical Conflict: An Analysis of the Gaza Conflict in 2014. International Journal of Strategic Communication. 2018; 12 (3):237-251.
Chicago/Turabian StyleLior Tabak; Eli Avraham. 2018. "Country Image Repair Strategies During an Asymmetrical Conflict: An Analysis of the Gaza Conflict in 2014." International Journal of Strategic Communication 12, no. 3: 237-251.
Nearly every country is associated with both positive and negative generalizations and stereotypes. Despite the fact that stereotypes can be a serious barrier to the arrival of tourists and investors, comprehensive studies focused on repair strategies chosen by marketers have rarely been conducted to date. Using the “multi-step model for altering place image,” which belongs to the image repair theory, the aim of this study is to examine the strategies that countries around the world have used to deal with negative perceptions and stereotypes. This examination made use of quantitative and qualitative content analysis of seventy ads produced in forty-seven countries, including print ads, TV commercials and YouTube videos. The analysis shows the use of three kinds of strategies by marketers to combat national stereotypes: source (personal testimony, blaming the media), message (expanding a narrow image, use of celebrities) and audience (emphasis on similar values, cultural symbols and geography, changing the target audience).
Eli Avraham. Nation branding and marketing strategies for combatting tourism crises and stereotypes toward destinations. Journal of Business Research 2018, 116, 711 -720.
AMA StyleEli Avraham. Nation branding and marketing strategies for combatting tourism crises and stereotypes toward destinations. Journal of Business Research. 2018; 116 ():711-720.
Chicago/Turabian StyleEli Avraham. 2018. "Nation branding and marketing strategies for combatting tourism crises and stereotypes toward destinations." Journal of Business Research 116, no. : 711-720.
The current study analyzes the media strategies used by Sub-Saharan African (SSA) countries to repair their destination image during and after crisis, and attract international tourism. There has been to date a dearth of academic studies that looked at the marketing and branding of destinations in SSA. The few studies that have appeared on this topic focused primarily on a single case study, rather than examining various models and theories that belong to the field of image repair. We, therefore, sought to analyze a variety of case studies to look for common strategies among SSA nations. The conceptual framework used in this research was the ‘multi-step model for altering place image.’ The study was based on qualitative content analyses of news reports, press interviews, campaigns and other marketing initiatives. These items were located in three sources between the years 2008 and 2015: official websites and social media pages of the national tourism boards of SSA countries, news, reports about African countries published in three main international media outlets and reports in a global tourism news website.The study's conclusions show that SSA marketers and policy-makers used three groups of strategies to promote their destinations during and after tourism crises: (1) source-focused strategies (media cooperation and media relations, physical/economic threats and media blockage, and internet use as an alternative source), (2) message-focused strategies (ignoring the crisis, negative image acknowledgement, scale of crisis reduction, counter-message delivery, association with well-known brands and celebrities, tackling the crisis and the spin of liabilities into assets), and (3) audience-focused strategies (patriotism and personal/national heritage, and target audience change). We discovered that despite the differences among the countries, marketers in this area have adopted similar strategies to combat crises in order to repair destination images.
Eli Avraham; Eran Ketter. Destination image repair while combatting crises: tourism marketing in Africa. Tourism Geographies 2017, 19, 780 -800.
AMA StyleEli Avraham, Eran Ketter. Destination image repair while combatting crises: tourism marketing in Africa. Tourism Geographies. 2017; 19 (5):780-800.
Chicago/Turabian StyleEli Avraham; Eran Ketter. 2017. "Destination image repair while combatting crises: tourism marketing in Africa." Tourism Geographies 19, no. 5: 780-800.
Egypt – a “must see” destination for generations of visitors - is considered to be one of the strongest tourism brands in the Middle East and tourism remains its dominant industry, accounting for 20% of its annual GDP. Over the past decades the country has suffered many crises such as wars, terrorist attacks, internal political tensions and violent changes in government. As can be expected, all of these were reported in the international media and had a negative effect on the flow of tourism into the country. By adopting the “multi-step model for altering place image,” this study includes qualitative content analysis of news reports, press interviews and relevant elements of advertising campaigns in order to uncover media policy, strategies, events and marketing initiatives used by Egyptian marketers and officials in order to restore a positive image of their country and bring back tourists after crises. The analysis shows that three types of strategies were used by Egyptian marketers to repair the country's image: source, message and audience; and a variety of other steps were also adopted.
Eli Avraham. Destination marketing and image repair during tourism crises: The case of Egypt. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 2016, 28, 41 -48.
AMA StyleEli Avraham. Destination marketing and image repair during tourism crises: The case of Egypt. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management. 2016; 28 ():41-48.
Chicago/Turabian StyleEli Avraham. 2016. "Destination marketing and image repair during tourism crises: The case of Egypt." Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 28, no. : 41-48.
The article examines the ways in which the national press includes or excludes the Ethiopian immigrants in the Jewish‐Israeli collective, and the changes applicable to these inclusion and exclusion practices. The study uses qualitative and quantitative content analysis, with reference to postcolonial theory. The findings of the research show that Israeli journalism tended, on one hand, to include the immigrants within the ancient Jewish collective, while at the same time, treating them as being culturally ignorant. This research provides a complex definition of the boundaries of the others, while also shedding light on an important subject, namely the representation of Ethiopian immigrants in Israeli media, which has been neglected by social science researchers.
Germaw Mengistu; Eli Avraham. “Others Among Their Own People”: The Social Construction of Ethiopian Immigrants in the Israeli National Press. Communication, Culture and Critique 2015, 8, 557 -575.
AMA StyleGermaw Mengistu, Eli Avraham. “Others Among Their Own People”: The Social Construction of Ethiopian Immigrants in the Israeli National Press. Communication, Culture and Critique. 2015; 8 (4):557-575.
Chicago/Turabian StyleGermaw Mengistu; Eli Avraham. 2015. "“Others Among Their Own People”: The Social Construction of Ethiopian Immigrants in the Israeli National Press." Communication, Culture and Critique 8, no. 4: 557-575.
The constant media coverage of the Middle East in terms of conflicts, terror attacks, and wars affects the media and public image of countries in this area. In analyzing marketing initiatives, media policy, public relations crisis techniques, and the components of advertising campaigns, the goal of this article is to uncover the strategies used by Middle Eastern marketers to restore a positive image to bring back tourism after crises during the past decade. Based on the multistep model for altering place image, the study used qualitative content analysis of advertisements, press interviews with Middle Eastern officials and marketers, national tourism board websites, and reports about marketing initiatives that appeared in the press and on global tourism news websites. The analysis shows that Middle Eastern marketers employed three types of strategies to restore a positive image: source, message, and audience.
Eli Avraham. Crisis Communication, Image Restoration, and Battling Stereotypes of Terror and Wars. American Behavioral Scientist 2013, 57, 1350 -1367.
AMA StyleEli Avraham. Crisis Communication, Image Restoration, and Battling Stereotypes of Terror and Wars. American Behavioral Scientist. 2013; 57 (9):1350-1367.
Chicago/Turabian StyleEli Avraham. 2013. "Crisis Communication, Image Restoration, and Battling Stereotypes of Terror and Wars." American Behavioral Scientist 57, no. 9: 1350-1367.
While there is a great deal of research on destination branding in general, the study of tourism marketing that deals specifically with destinations suffering from prolonged image problems is less well developed. We integrated theories from crisis communication, image restoration and destination marketing to examine media strategies used by such destinations to attract tourism, and then classified them. We utilized qualitative content analysis of tourism campaigns for destinations – primarily in problematic areas such as the Middle East, Africa, Eastern Europe – that appeared in international tourism magazines, destinations’ websites and video-sharing websites. We classified two approaches of media strategies: the ‘cosmetic approach’, relating to strategies that focus mainly on altering the destination's image and the ‘strategic approach’, relating to strategies that take comprehensive action, changing both the negative image and the problems causing it.
Eli Avraham; Eran Ketter. Marketing Destinations with Prolonged Negative Images: Towards a Theoretical Model. Tourism Geographies 2013, 15, 145 -164.
AMA StyleEli Avraham, Eran Ketter. Marketing Destinations with Prolonged Negative Images: Towards a Theoretical Model. Tourism Geographies. 2013; 15 (1):145-164.
Chicago/Turabian StyleEli Avraham; Eran Ketter. 2013. "Marketing Destinations with Prolonged Negative Images: Towards a Theoretical Model." Tourism Geographies 15, no. 1: 145-164.
In this paper, we suggest the “Narrative Spheres of Performed National Identity” theoretical model, regarding the way ad narratives negotiate national identity in the globalization era, and use it to demonstrate how narrative is transformed. Israeli print ads serve as a test case in this qualitative study to demonstrate a transformation from the narrative of Americanization—which has dominated Israeli ads during the 1990s and throughout the beginning of the 21st century—into the “green narrative,” during the mid-2000s. The model, which is comprised of four performance spheres—national, geographic, economic, and cultural—helps in analyzing the transformation of the national identity narrative of a small country under siege by both global and local pressures.
Eli Avraham; Anat First. Towards a New Model of Narrative Transformation: From the American Myth to the Green Myth. Communication Theory 2013, 23, 67 -90.
AMA StyleEli Avraham, Anat First. Towards a New Model of Narrative Transformation: From the American Myth to the Green Myth. Communication Theory. 2013; 23 (1):67-90.
Chicago/Turabian StyleEli Avraham; Anat First. 2013. "Towards a New Model of Narrative Transformation: From the American Myth to the Green Myth." Communication Theory 23, no. 1: 67-90.
This article examines the portrayal of Israel’s Arab population in the Hebrew media, with particular attention to coverage by the national television channels of two violent incidents: events surrounding the first Land Day (30 March 1976) and events of the protests in October 2000, at the start of the Al-Aqsa Intifada. Our purpose is twofold: first, to explore how Israeli Arabs are portrayed during violent conflict, and, second, to examine the means of presentation in terms of a time frame, in accordance with the view that the presentation process is dynamic. The research relied primarily on qualitative analysis of media content, but attention was also paid to the quantitative aspects of the coverage. Here we used two complementary theories — the representation approach and the framing concept. At the core of both these theories lies the constructionist approach, which serves as their point of origin.
Eli Avraham; Anat First. Combining the representation approach with the framing concept: Television news coverage of the Arab population in Israel during conflict. Journalism 2010, 11, 481 -499.
AMA StyleEli Avraham, Anat First. Combining the representation approach with the framing concept: Television news coverage of the Arab population in Israel during conflict. Journalism. 2010; 11 (4):481-499.
Chicago/Turabian StyleEli Avraham; Anat First. 2010. "Combining the representation approach with the framing concept: Television news coverage of the Arab population in Israel during conflict." Journalism 11, no. 4: 481-499.
Studies show that coverage of minority and marginal groups in the central-national media is problematic. As a result, in the last decade, regulators—mainly in Europe—encouraged more proper media representation of minority groups and fair reflection of the cultural diversity. Analyzing the Israeli case study, this article examines whether the Israeli regulator succeeded in effecting changes in the representation of minority groups in Israel's national-commercial media, and the characteristics of these changes.
Eli Avraham; Anat First. Can a Regulator Change Representation of Minority Groups and Fair Reflection of Cultural Diversity in National Media Programs? Lessons From Israel. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media 2010, 54, 136 -148.
AMA StyleEli Avraham, Anat First. Can a Regulator Change Representation of Minority Groups and Fair Reflection of Cultural Diversity in National Media Programs? Lessons From Israel. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media. 2010; 54 (1):136-148.
Chicago/Turabian StyleEli Avraham; Anat First. 2010. "Can a Regulator Change Representation of Minority Groups and Fair Reflection of Cultural Diversity in National Media Programs? Lessons From Israel." Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media 54, no. 1: 136-148.
Attracting international tourism to Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) is a key tool for social and economic development. However, SSA countries must first battle negative stereotypes and improve their national image. This study examines the use of media strategies for altering place image on the official tourism websites of SSA countries. The results indicate that official tourism websites use eight types of media strategies, grouped by four place characteristics. The study's discussion elaborates on the relation between place characteristics and the choice of media strategies, and proposes a framework for the use of online media strategies in place marketing.
Eran Ketter; Eli Avraham. Online tourism marketing for Sub-Saharan African countries: battling stereotypes of high risk, hostility and underdevelopment. International Journal of Tourism Policy 2010, 3, 318 .
AMA StyleEran Ketter, Eli Avraham. Online tourism marketing for Sub-Saharan African countries: battling stereotypes of high risk, hostility and underdevelopment. International Journal of Tourism Policy. 2010; 3 (4):318.
Chicago/Turabian StyleEran Ketter; Eli Avraham. 2010. "Online tourism marketing for Sub-Saharan African countries: battling stereotypes of high risk, hostility and underdevelopment." International Journal of Tourism Policy 3, no. 4: 318.
Marketing and branding of countries, as mentioned in the theoretical and professional literature, is not an easy challenge; this challenge is even more daunting when a certain country has been the subject of prolonged negative media coverage focusing on wars, terror and violence. Using the multistep model for altering place image, this article sets out to analyze strategies used to restore Israel's positive image. The analysis of Israel's image and its marketing efforts can help us better understand how marketers manage nation branding and marketing efforts during prolonged crises and constant conflict. This article is based on a close analysis of dozens of advertisements, public relations (PR) campaigns, press releases, academic and popular articles, news articles, interviews and websites of Israel's government departments and Jewish organizations. The analysis shows that over the years, the nation's marketers used three kinds of strategies: focusing on the source, on the message and on the target audience. The article also evaluates the employment of these various strategies used by Israel's marketers over the years.
Eli Avraham. Marketing and managing nation branding during prolonged crisis: The case of Israel. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy 2009, 5, 202 -212.
AMA StyleEli Avraham. Marketing and managing nation branding during prolonged crisis: The case of Israel. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy. 2009; 5 (3):202-212.
Chicago/Turabian StyleEli Avraham. 2009. "Marketing and managing nation branding during prolonged crisis: The case of Israel." Place Branding and Public Diplomacy 5, no. 3: 202-212.
Eli Avraham; Eran Ketter. Introduction. Media Strategies for Marketing Places in Crisis 2008, 1 .
AMA StyleEli Avraham, Eran Ketter. Introduction. Media Strategies for Marketing Places in Crisis. 2008; ():1.
Chicago/Turabian StyleEli Avraham; Eran Ketter. 2008. "Introduction." Media Strategies for Marketing Places in Crisis , no. : 1.
Eli Avraham; Eran Ketter. Image management and campaign. Media Strategies for Marketing Places in Crisis 2008, 45 -65.
AMA StyleEli Avraham, Eran Ketter. Image management and campaign. Media Strategies for Marketing Places in Crisis. 2008; ():45-65.
Chicago/Turabian StyleEli Avraham; Eran Ketter. 2008. "Image management and campaign." Media Strategies for Marketing Places in Crisis , no. : 45-65.
Eli Avraham; Eran Ketter. Source strategies. Media Strategies for Marketing Places in Crisis 2008, 122 -134.
AMA StyleEli Avraham, Eran Ketter. Source strategies. Media Strategies for Marketing Places in Crisis. 2008; ():122-134.
Chicago/Turabian StyleEli Avraham; Eran Ketter. 2008. "Source strategies." Media Strategies for Marketing Places in Crisis , no. : 122-134.
Eli Avraham; Eran Ketter. Message-focused strategies. Media Strategies for Marketing Places in Crisis 2008, 135 -177.
AMA StyleEli Avraham, Eran Ketter. Message-focused strategies. Media Strategies for Marketing Places in Crisis. 2008; ():135-177.
Chicago/Turabian StyleEli Avraham; Eran Ketter. 2008. "Message-focused strategies." Media Strategies for Marketing Places in Crisis , no. : 135-177.
E Avraham. The multi-step model for altering place image. Media Strategies for Marketing Places in Crisis 2008, 187 -203.
AMA StyleE Avraham. The multi-step model for altering place image. Media Strategies for Marketing Places in Crisis. 2008; ():187-203.
Chicago/Turabian StyleE Avraham. 2008. "The multi-step model for altering place image." Media Strategies for Marketing Places in Crisis , no. : 187-203.
Eli Avraham; Eran Ketter. References. Media Strategies for Marketing Places in Crisis 2008, 211 -224.
AMA StyleEli Avraham, Eran Ketter. References. Media Strategies for Marketing Places in Crisis. 2008; ():211-224.
Chicago/Turabian StyleEli Avraham; Eran Ketter. 2008. "References." Media Strategies for Marketing Places in Crisis , no. : 211-224.